exam 2 Flashcards
4 essential steps of public relations
Research
Planning
Communication
Measurement
research is defined as the
systematic investigation
of a problem
involving gathering evidences
to make inferences
systematic: predefined procedures and methods
survey questionnaire
guidelines for focus group
codebook for content analysis
systematic: inter subjectivity
It must be possible for other researchers to replicate our study and come to the same results.
Of a Research Problem…
Should be empirical, should be answered based on observable evidence
3 key types of problems:
Exploratory- (focus groups to understand voters’ reaction to new policies)
Descriptive-(audience research, research of market shares)
Causal-(examining the influence of one variable on another)
exploratory research
Pretesting brand and product names in different cultures.
Often, up to 10,000 different variations tested
exploratory research involves a focus group for
Cognitive associations: sports → football
Different meaning (a word can have two separate meanings in different languages) (Ford Probe translates into Ford Trial in German)
Pronunciation (if it’s hard to pronounce, less people will buy it)
When gathering evidence, search for social regularities
Predictions about specific publics, larger group of voters, or consumers
NOT predictions about individuals.
when gathering evidence, there’s always a chance of error
finding hold within some margin of error, there’s never absolute certainty
important distinction: probabilistic vs. deterministic predictions - we can only predict how people will most likely react, without certainty
Most market and PR research is still based on samples. The goal to make inferences to:
A larger population
Other time periods
Other locations/societies
academic research
often called “basic” research
funded through universities or foundations in order to answer broader theoretical questions
conducted by academics
data remain property of the researcher but usually can be used by other researchers.
applied research
often called “industry” research funded by corporate or political sponsors to answer a specific, applied question conducted by -academics -research departments of larger firms -market research or consulting companies data remains property of the client
primary research
Information gathered by the researchers through person-to-person interaction.
Can be gathered through meetings. one-on-one interviews, focus group, surveys
secondary research
Information gathers through available literature publications, broadcast media, and other non-human sources. Generally easier to gather than primary (Nielsen data, Pew data,)
quantitative research
“numerical tabulations and statistical comparisons made possible by systematic surveys, experiments, observations, or analysis of records. Data are used to test hypotheses and identify the strength of patterns observed using qualitative methods”
qualitative research
“descriptions of cultural situations obtained from interviewing , participant observation, and collection of oral and textual materials”
popular quantitative methodologies
Surveys (telephone; mailed; online)
Sampling: random, area probability, snowball, convenience
Complexity, length of questionnaire
Survey mode (in person, telephone, email, web)
Analysis
when do we use qualitative methods?
When you’re in new territory and little is known
When customer perceptions or attitudes may be hidden from easy view
When the product category may represent unspoken meaning to buyers
To generate ideas for products, advertising, or brand positioning
To feed a formal idea generation process
To screen ideas and concepts.
qualitative data provides….
…insights into how and why people think and behave as they do
the most popular qualitative methods
Interviews
Participant - observation, and
Focus groups
structured interview
Uses an interview schedule and adheres fairly strictly to it
Similar to a survey in that the informants don’t really guide the interviewer
semi-structured interview
Begins with a key set of questions for interview
But, allows informats to wander into interesting territory
Later informants may be asked about these issues
unstructured interview
Freedom
One general opening statement and then a free flow.
focus groups
Given high costs of interviews, researchers increasingly turning to focus groups
Consist of 5-10 people who are chosen based on their relevance to the study
It is a guided discussion designed to explore a topic of special interest to the client/research
as a participant- observation
methodology- With the embedded method, you may choose not to record when you are interacting with others, but you remember and record your observations.
Your data are your observations
Your analysis involves comparing your observations to your earlier expectations.
cross-sectional research
Research based on a sample drawn at a single point in time
longitudinal research
Research based on one or multiple sample with measurements taken at taken at multiple points time
types of longitudinal studies
trend studies: data trends as they develop over time
panel studies: looking at same individuals over time
cohort studies: looking at how certain groups data collections over time
Probability Sampling: Each element of the population has a
non-zero (the chance of an element being selected is greater than zero)
known, (we know what that chance is, i.e. if there are 5 elements, each element has a ⅕ chance of being selected)
equal chance of being selected into the sample (again, if there are 5 elements, there must be a ⅕ chance for each)
non-probability sampling
One of the assumptions of probability sampling is violated, T.t call-in polls, Internet surveys (if you don’t have TV or internet, it is ineffective)
Important: In order to calculate sampling err (measure of how precise a poll really is) we need to use probability sampling techniques
probability- simple random sample SRS
Every element and every combination of elements has an equal chance of being selected Problem: Requires a list of sampling units (ex: a class list)
probability- systematic sampling
Choose a starting point and every nth unit is chosen to be selected
Problem: Requires a list of sampling units (ex: “ “)
probabilit- cluster sampling
Divide population into clusters and then randomly choose X number of clusters.
non-probability sampling methodologies
Accidental/ Haphazard/Convenience Sampling
Exit Polls
Call-in Polls
purposive/ judgmental sampling
“Typical” precincts and medical research (going to take awhile)
targeting people non-probability based
snowball sampling
Invitation based on your sample
For example, if you make a facebook event and invite a certain number of people, set it so that they then can invite whoever they want, and so on, it “snowballs”
tend to be biased if we all connect with the same people
quota sampling
Once most common sampling technique
Involves sampling according to predefined characteristics of population (race, gender, sex, etc…)
sometimes too much freedom for researcher
why do we sample? why not just ask everyone’s opinion?
Not feasible to get every persons opinion
small control group to apply to everyone
sampling allows their opinion is what everyone else is saying (with room for error)
The Development of Opinion & Market Research
Before 1940s
Naive outlook toward research based on
WWI Propaganda
Orson Welles’ “War of the Worlds” (Oct., 1938)
Lack of commonly-accepted research procedures
“Magic Bullet”
the development of opinion and market research: During and immediately after WW II:
Involvement of government in applied research
Columbia’s “Bureau of Applied Social Research”
Lazarsfeld et al.: The People Choice
New developments in research techniques
“Reinforcement and two-step flow”
the development of opinion and market research: during and after 1950s
Sharp increase in privately-funded PR and advertising research
Emergence of telephone and online polling
As a result: development of (industry/ research as we know it today)
“Contingent and delayed effects”
ways2useresearch Achieve credibility with management
executives want facts, not guesses. The inclusion of PR personnel in an organization’s policy and decision making is strongly correlated with their ability to do research and relate their findings to the organization’s objectives.
ways2useresearch define/segments policy
information on demographics, characteristics, lifestyles and consumption patterns of audiences helps ensure messages reach the proper audiences
ways2useresearch: formulate strategy
You want the right strategy because otherwise, you may waste money
ways2useresearch: test messages
Determines what messages work best for the target audience.
ways2useresearch: prevent crises
Uncovers trouble spots and public concerns before they become page one news. This tips off an organization that they
ways2useresearch: monitor competition
i.e. surveys that ask consumers to comment on competing products. This helps an organization shape its marketing and communication strategies to position a product and capitalize on competitor’s weaknesses.
ways2useresearch: generate publicity
we want people talking about our product
ways2useresearch: generate success
we want to know whether the time and money spent accomplished the objective
induction observation and theory
Observation- (e.g., from exploratory research it seems that people tend to remember the first and last items from a list better than items in the middle.
form theory based on pattern
Theory: Theory of primacy and recency effects in information processing
deduction theory
Theory: Media cover the George W. Bush campaign unfavorable
Observations: (Based on content analyses) Overall, articles or news casts about George W. Bush tend to be balanced.
come in with a theory and then gather observations to see if it supports your theory or not
collect observations backed up with support
research as a cyclical process
Theory→ Meaning Analysis/ Deduction→ Data→ Empirical Analysis/Induction
research as a cyclical process detailed w/ examples
Theory( e.g., Fear appeals are an effective way to campaign to young people against undesirable social issues)
Concepts (Fear appeal, effective, young people, etc.)
Hypotheses- (1) exposure to fear appeals will frighten young people
(2) Heightened fear will lead to behavioral responses to alleviate that fear
Variables (e.g., to fear message, frighten/fear, behavioral response
Measures(e.g., 10-point scales etc.)
Observation (e.g., Interviews, surveys, etc.)
research process- client question
the real world
research process- budget schedule
what can we do/how much money do we have/do we have enough time/is this a crisis or a long term problem?
research process-conceptualization
what are we interested in understanding
research process- selecting a research strategy/ methodology
process you choose that collects data
research process- operationalization
how you’re going to measure what you’re doing
research process- population sampling
who do you want to ask your question to
research process- questionnaire construction
Pretest/how you’re going to frame your question(s), the order you ask them
more steps in research process
Fieldwork/ Data Collection
Data Entry/ Processing/Cleaning
Data Analysis
Report Writing
the second step- planning
must be strategic and systematic
i.e., linked to the “big picture” and based on research
planning involves the coordination of multiple methods: methods
Observation Sample surveys Experiments Focus Groups Content Analysis (?) Statistical data (Census) Etc.
planning involves the coordination of multiple methods: methodology
How to combine different methods in order to answer a specific research/ client question.
8 elements of a program plan
1. Situation What is the situation for your organization? 2. Objectives What are you trying to accomplish? 3. Audience Who will your campaign target and why? 4. Strategy How will your campaign meet your objectives? 5. Tactics The specific activities of the campaign 6. Calendar/ Timetable When will campaign run? What sequence? 7. Budget 8. Evaluation/Measurement Evaluate if you met objectives
3 situations generally define the need for a PR program
Need a program to remedy a problem
Example: BP oil spill, Paula Deen racist scandal
Need for one-time launch a product or service
Example: iwatch, Chevy Sonic commercials
Need to reinforce a message or their reputation
Example: Great Barrier Reef - best job ever
Program Planning: Objectives
Let’s begin by differentiating goals from objectives
Goals
General, mission-oriented, not measurable
(to education Athens-Clarke County residents about the U.S Census
(To get support for the U.S. Census in Athens-Clarke County)
program planning objectives
Grow out of goals, are clear and measurable
Used to communicate and plan campaign
Provide an evaluative benchmark
Can be output evaluative (increase newspaper coverage) or impact (raise awareness focused, as well as informational, attitudinal/motivational, and/or behavioral
objectives characteristics
Linked to goals Linked to a specific public Linked to a specific outcome Linked to research Written explicitly, clearly Measurable Time-defined Designed for a single public & single response Stretching, but attainable
sample objectives- informational
Changing message exposure, comprehension, and/or retention
To increase awareness of the Grady College Centennial by 50 percent among Grady alums by October 1st, 2014
sample objectives: attitudinal, motivational
Modify the way an audience feels
To promote favorable attitudes toward the new retirement policy among 80% of current employees by January 15th, 2015
sample objectives- behavioral
The modification of a behavior
To decrease smoking by 15% among UGA students and employees by the end of 2014
tips for writing objectives
What public is addressed?
Is the objective information/awareness attitudinal/acceptance, or action/behavior?
What effect? Receiving? Understanding? Remembering? Increasing Interest? Achieving behavior?
What direction of change? Increase? Decrease? Maintain?
Provide a specific measure
Provide a specific time period
To [direction] [effect] among [public] about [what] by [measure] within [timeframe]
e.g., To increase awareness among UGA senior ADPR majors about the 4+1 Master’s program by 60% within the next three months.
program planning- audience
Public relations rarely target a so-called “mass audience”
Rather market research is done to pinpoint specific publics and where they are located
Targeting decision-making is based on trends in demographics (e.g.,”fastest growing groups”), growth opportunities, costs, etc.
…and, increasingly, at the individual-level
how might we target communications
Age/gender/ethnicity Marital Status Education level/ income level Location Media use habits Political Beliefs Religious Beliefs
program planning- strategy
How and why a campaign is to succeed
Ideas generated and rationale is shared for how the tactics will work on the targeted audiences will work on the targeted audiences,etcs.
the “aha” moment
program planning- tactics
The nuts and bolts of the strategy
Goes beyond rationale and focuses on the specific activities, materials, etc. to implement the strategy
program planning- brainstorming
Bring everyone up to speed on the situation and client
Share goals and objectives
Creation of springboards from client and participants
I wish…would happen
What if we…
Breakout groups to address these springboards
program planning- brainstorming followed by smaller creative meetings
Handful of ideas are fleshed out in greater detail
If an event, where in the city should we have it? Why?
Thinking in terms of fit with advertising strategy (which may be through a different firm) or fit with other brands, etc.
Program Planning: Calendar
When are key messages expected to be most meaningful to target audiences?
Seasonal timing Holiday timing e.g, charitable donations during holiday season Days-of-the-week timing Hours-of-the-day timing
how should we schedule the specific tactics
When is the ideal moment for exposure to a campaign?
Are consumers in info-seeking mode? Purchase mode? Are interest and attention high?
program planning- calendar- will be influenced by
Size of the budget, $$$ changes tactics
Consumer-use cycles: when people are paying attention most
Competitors’ advertising/tactics
Share of voice
ex: Coca-Cola has a continuous buzz, constant campaign
program planning- calendar- 3 scheduling methods
Continuity: full calendar year - ebb and flow
Flighting: moments then you die down - flood with information then pull back
Pulsing: baseline level of information being released - jump more at certain times of the year, changing the rate you’re engaging
program planning: budget
the budget impacts the scheduling of various media-related activities, but it also impacts every other aspect of the campaign
two major budgetary categories
Staff time (typically about 70% of budget)
Out-of-pocket expenses
Most elements of a campaign or strategy will require money allocated to each category
Be prepared for the financial figure your client gave you to suddenly and dramatically change
This means you are constantly revisiting earlier aspects of the planning process
program planning: evaluation
Relying on metrics to determine if objectives have been met
evaluation: Key decision is what metric will you be able to use?
Sales data?
Follow-up calls for information?
Attitudinal surveys?
the third step- communication
a.ka., execution
The process and means by which objectives are actually achieved
The process by which tactics are developed and implemented
Key Goals of PR Communication
Message exposure
Intended audience exposed to message in intended form
key goals of pr communication
Accurate dissemination
Basic message remains intact as sent through various media and it reaches the correct publics
key goals of pr communication
Acceptance of the message
Audience pays attention, retains and accepts the message
key goals of pr communication
attitude change
Shift in attitudes in direction of message
you can accept a message w/o changing the attitude
shift in attitude => engaging in direction of the message
key goals of pr communication
behavior change
Make donation, purchase service, etc.
grunig’s phases of communication
Audience receives the message Audience pays attention to the message Audience understands the message Audience believes the message Audience remembers the message Audience acts on the message
Making The Audience See The Message: Five Types of Communication Media
Public media
Used to build awareness and credibility
One-way form of communication with low audience engagement, high reach and relatively low costs
-Paid advertisement and product placements in traditional media (e.g., TV, newspapers, magazines, radio, etc)
-Out-of-home media (e.g., billboards, posters, movie trailers)
-cheap form of communication, audience doesn’t pay much attention to it, but they definitely see it.
five steps of communication media
controlled media
Used to promote and provide greater detail than public media
Largely one-way form of communication characterized by a smaller reach, somewhat higher levels of audience engagement, and moderate costs
Typically not quite as “mass” in appeal
e.g., brochures, newsletters, direct mail, exhibits or displays, annual reports, etc.
five steps of communication media
interactive media
Used to respond to queries,engage audiences and exchange information
Typically a two-way form of communication with high levels of audience engagement, moderate levels of reach, and moderate costs
e.g., email, blogs, wikis, websites, social media, electronic kiosks, webinars, podcasts
five steps of communication media
events
Motivate participants and reinforce existing attitudes
CAN be a two-way form of communication with moderate audience engagement, low reach, and moderate costs
e.g., meetings, conferences, contests, presentations, trade shows, contests, demonstrations/rallies, etc.
one-to-one communication
Obtain commitments, negotiate, and solve problems
Two-way communication with high audience engagement, low reach and high costs
e.g., personal visits, lobbying, telephone calls, and other face-to-face interactions.
make the audience pay attention to the message
Theoretical perspectives
Media uses and gratification
Asks: “What do people want from media?” rather than what are media’s impacts on people..
Why do you use your smartphone?
Theoretical perspectives examples
The communicator often wishes to inform and more than likely to persuade
The receiver may want to be informed, but oftentimes just wants to be entertained
How does this impact the type of message I send to the receiver?
passive audiences
May only pay attention because they seek a diversion
May require stylish and creative messages to garner their attention
active audiences
Already engaged in your message, so different more detail-based tactics likely to work best
other things to garner attention
Present a “need” early in the message- audience attention is typically high at the start of a message and wanes from there
People pay attention to messages that fit with pre existing values (channeling)
Can use this knowledge to devise appropriate messages for appropriate channels
Take advantage of events in the news that may be salient audiences..
Making sure the message is understood
In the most simple sense, the communicator and receiver must speak the same language
But, the communicator must also understand cultural differences, educational levels, and the role of jargon
message is understood: Check writing for simplicity and clarity
Readability formulas: Flesch, Cloze
Flesch: measure of avg. sentence length and number of one-syllable words
Cloze: ease with which reader can read sentence where words are removed
message is understood: Use symbols, acronyms, easy-to-remember slogans
This can also make for more creative content that will appeal to passive audiences
making sure the message is understood: avoid
jargon, cliche, hype, euphemisms (e.g., layoffs as “right-sizing”) discriminatory language
Making sure the message is Believable & Credible
Source credibility
e.g., advertising vs. news article
The importance of the sleeper effect
-While we may initially discount new information as being biased because of the source, over time, we forget the source and retain the information
-ex: politicians ad campaigns against one another, clearly not believable when you see it, but the message will be there over time
Message context
Making sure your message is backed up by your action
cognitive dissonance
We strive for consistency between our attitudes and between our behaviors and we take steps to ensure this is the case…
Ex: Im a smoker and I hear it’s bad for me. I can..
Change my behavior: Quit smoking (good luck)
Justify the behavior by modifying the health argument: it’s not like I smoke as much as other people do
Justify the behavior by adding new information: I’ll eat a salad tonight to balance it out
Ignore the information: Huh, I don’t think true
Deny: I don’t smoke
involvement
For low involvement groups, cues like source attractiveness can enhance credibility, while high involvement groups will pay more attention to the actual logic of the message
ENHANCES. not necessarily a breakthrough that delivers a message
Making sure the Message is Memorable
Repetition
Is necessary: More than half of people need to hear a message 3 to 5 times before they believed it
Delivering the message in a variety of ways across multiple communication channels (ex: posting on multiple social media sites)
Making sure the Audience Acts on the Message
Five-stage adoption process:
Awareness-via advertising or other properly placed media
Interest-ideally leads to an interest in publics to learn more about product, service, or organization; adding intrigue
Evaluation-consumer evaluates the idea or product in terms of needs and wants met
Trial-consumer samples the product or idea. ex: getting perfume samples in the mail, playing with iPads in the Apple Store
Adoption-idea or product is integrated into individual’s life
Rogers’ diffusion of Innovations-how does innovation spread
Relative advantage-is the innovation better than the idea it replaces?
Compatibility-is the innovation consistent with needs of potential adopters? (ex: phones getting bigger because we’re doing more with them)
Complexity-Is the innovation easy to incorporate for adopters? Is the technology simple enough? Ex: iPad is super user friendly, good for little kids and old people
Trialability- can the innovation experienced on a limited basis first?
Observability- are the result of the innovation visible to others? ex: Apple logo
Convincing audiences to act on a message is also influenced by the proper targeting of your message
Primary public
Main target audience for whom you prioritize message strategy and tactics
Secondary public and Tertiary public
intervening publics
Opinion leaders, friends and family that have contact with your primary audience`
moderating publics
Publics that share a common goal or philosophy with your primary public
e.g., work colleagues, members of an activist group
Heavily influence the primary public
The Fourth Step: Measurement
Measurement has multiple meaning in public relations (and other disciplines):
Measurement is the evaluation of results against agreed-upon objectives established during planning
Evaluation improves the public relations process.
