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Bio 101 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

three types of work fueled by

phosphate transfer

A

mechanical
transport
chemical

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2
Q

purpose of cellular respiration

A

process by which we extract energy from glucose

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3
Q

equation for cellular respiration

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ⇒ 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

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4
Q

Glycolysis basics

A

cellular respiration
cytoplasm (cytosol)
sugar to pyruvic acid

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5
Q

Glycolysis process

A
  • investment phase: uses 2 ATP to break carbon backbone (now two 3C compounds)
  • payoff phase: uses ATP and NADH to convert to pyruvic acid
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6
Q

Glycolysis output

A

2 pyruvic acids
2 NADHs
net 2 ATPs

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7
Q

steps to cellular respiration

A

glycolysis
intermediate phase
Krebs cycle
electron transfer chain

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8
Q

intermediate stage of cellular respiration basics

A

pyruvic acid becomes acetyl CoA as it moves through mitochondrion to inner compartment in prep for Krebs cycle

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9
Q

intermediate stage of cellular respiration process

A

each acid gives off one C for CO2, resulting in two CoA molecules

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10
Q

intermediate stage of cellular respiration output

A

2 CoA

2 NADHs

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11
Q

Krebs cycle basics

A

cellular respiration
inner mitochondrion
completes the breakdown of glucose into CO2

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12
Q

Krebs cycle process

A

(times 2)
starts with CoA (2C) molecule
added to 4C from cycle to equal 6C
2 are sloughed off to form CO2
ATP generated
remaining 4 used to start next cycle (0 original left)
NADH and FADH2 obtained through reduction

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13
Q

Krebs cycle output

A

net for each cycle: 3 NADHs, 1 ATP, 1 FADH2

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14
Q

electron transport chain basics (CR)

A

inner compartment mitochondria “matrix”

converts 10 NADHs and 2 FADH2 into bulk of ATPs needed

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15
Q

electron transport chain process (CR)

A
  • electrons transported out of NADH to become NAD+
  • electrons go through series of pumps, progressively reducing in energy level
  • output from each pump through the inner mitochondrial membrane is H+ (proton)
  • O2 pulls electrons down the chain and is the terminal electron acceptor (end of the transfer chain byproduct is H20)
  • ATP synthase is where bulk of ATP is produced by spinning to convert pump output (H+) into energy
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16
Q

purpose of photosynthesis

A

using sunlight to synthesize energy (making glucose)

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17
Q

equation for photosynthesis

A

6CO2 + 6H2O ⇒ (light energy) ⇒ C6H12O6 + 6O2

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18
Q

light reactions basics

A

photosynthesis
thylakoid
converts H2O to O2

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19
Q

light reactions basics

A

photosynthesis
thylakoid
converts H2O to O2

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20
Q

light reactions process

A

photosystem 2 (uses stripped H from H20)
electron transfer chain
photosystem 1

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21
Q

light reactions output

A

nets ATP and NADPH for use in Calvin cycle

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22
Q

Calvin cycle process

A
  • starts with 1 block 3CO2 molecules from air, plus ATP and NADPH from light reactions
  • added to 3 blocks of 5C (recycled)
  • ATP and NADPH converted
  • 1 block 3C leaves to create G3P, precursor of glucose (3 blocks of 5C left to recycle)
  • complete cycle twice to make 1 glucose
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23
Q

Calvin cycle process

A
  • starts with 1 block 3CO2 molecules from air, plus ATP and NADPH from light reactions
  • added to 3 blocks of 5C (recycled)
  • ATP and NADPH converted
  • 1 block 3C leaves to create G3P, precursor of glucose (3 blocks of 5C left to recycle)
  • complete cycle twice to make 1 glucose
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24
Q

what holds DNA base pairs together?

A

hydrogen (A – T = 2; C – G = 3)

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25
Q

what is enzyme that opens helix for replication?

A

helicase

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26
Q

what is DNA’s main purpose?

A

encode proteins

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27
Q

DNA replication process

A
  • double helix is opened/broken apart
  • DNA polymerases read DNA and adds complementary nucleotides to both
  • each of resulting two double helices contains one original (parent) strand and one new (daughter) strand
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28
Q

Hershey – Chase experiment

A
  • proves that DNA, not protein, is passed on to children
  • chose to work with phosphorous and sulfur
  • phosphate in DNA, not protein
  • sulfur in protein, not DNA
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29
Q

genotype

A

an organism’s genetic makeup

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30
Q

phenotype

A

an organism’s physical traits

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31
Q

start codon

A

AUG

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32
Q

steps to converting DNA to proteins

A

transcription
RNA splicing (intermediate)
translation

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33
Q

transcription basics

A

converts DNA to RNA in nucleus

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34
Q

transcription process

A

DNA opened with helicase

RNA polymerase reads DNA and lays down complementary RNA base

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35
Q

RNA splicing basics

A

RNA to mRNA (intermediate step in nucleus)

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36
Q

RNA splicing process

A

exons spliced together to form mRNA, introns released

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37
Q

exon

A

expressed sections of DNA bases, spliced together coding sequences that form mRNA

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38
Q

intron

A

sections of DNA that aren’t expressed but instead edited or released

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39
Q

translation process

A
  • ribosome travels down the mRNA chain until it reaches the start codon, then lays down the first amino acid
  • after Met, ribosome will read next codon (triplet base) and lay down corresponding amino acid
  • process continues until stop codon is reached
  • tRNA translates between languages of mRNA to proteins
  • if a mutation occurs before the start codon, there is no change
40
Q

translation process

A

ribosome travels down the mRNA chain until it reaches the start codon, then lays down the first amino acid

41
Q

first amino acid in every protein, signaled by the start codon

A

Methionine

42
Q

mRNA

A

messenger RNA, uses start codon

43
Q

tRNA

A

transfer RNA (the translator), uses anticodon UAC, carries appropriate amino acid to location requested by mRNA

44
Q

chromatin

A

loose DNA wrapped around protein

45
Q

mitochondrion

A

site of cellular respiration

46
Q

mitochondrion

A

site of cellular respiration

47
Q

mitosis

A

somatic cell division

48
Q

goal of mitosis

A

make two identical cells

49
Q

steps to mitosis

A

prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase

50
Q

prophase process

A
  • chromosomes condense
  • centrioles send off proteins to attach to chromosomes
  • nuclear envelope disintegrates in order to pull apart
51
Q

metaphase process

A

chromosomes line up in center along metaphase plate

52
Q

anaphase process

A

sister chromatids separate, become own daughter chromosome, and move toward opposite sides of the cell

53
Q

telophase process

A
  • groups of chromosomes have reached opposite edge of cell
  • two nuclear envelopes formed
  • cells cleave apart
54
Q

cytokinesis

A

two new identical cells cleaving apart

55
Q

of chromosomes in sex cells

A

23

56
Q

of chromosomes in somatic cells

A

46 (one from each parent)

57
Q

goal of meiosis

A

produce four genetically different sex cells

58
Q

plant gametes

A

seeds and pollen

59
Q

human gametes

A

sperm and egg

60
Q

autosome

A

non-sex chromosome (any other than X or Y)

61
Q

homologous

A

the two chromosomes that make a matched pair (non-sex), possessing the same genes for the same characteristics at the same loci (one from each parent)

62
Q

steps to meiosis

A

Meiosis I

Meiosis II

63
Q

steps to Meiosis I

A

prophase I
metaphase I
anaphase I
telophase I

64
Q

recombination

A

aka “crossing over”

sister chromatids pair up to become homologous chromosomes, and swap DNA so they are no longer identical in prophase I

65
Q

random alignment

A

chromosomes line up on random sides (right or left) in metaphase I

66
Q

Mendel’s law of independent assortment

A

the inheritance of one character has no effect on the inheritance of another

67
Q

karyotype

A

visual display of 23 pairs of human chromosomes

68
Q

haploid

A

one set of chromosomes in gamete (n, total 23)

69
Q

diploid

A

two sets of chromosomes in autosome (2n, total 46)

70
Q

sister chromatids

A

identical copies of DNA after replication, half of chromosome lengthwise

71
Q

homologous chromosomes

A

• the two sister chromatids that make a matched pair (non-sex)
• they possess the same genes for the same characteristics at the same loci (one from each parent)
o basically same DNA, genes except variant or mutation
o one from each parent at each karyotype number

72
Q

centromere

A

where sister chromatids join to form a homologous chromosome

73
Q

goal of meiosis

A

produce (genetically different) sex cells

74
Q

how many cells meiosis produces and why

A

After two successive cell divisions of meiosis, a single diploid cell will produce four different haploid cells

75
Q

plant gametes

A

seeds and pollen

76
Q

human gametes

A

sperm and egg

77
Q

meiosis I basics

A

homologous pairs separate; one diploid cell becomes two genetically different haploid cells

78
Q

prophase I process

A
  • homologous chromosomes pair up (now a tetrad or bivalent, a group of four chromatids, or two pairs) and swap DNA so they are no longer identical
  • chromosome groups start to move toward center
  • nuclear envelope disintegrate
79
Q

metaphase I process

A
  • bivalent homologous chromosome groups line up on the metaphase plate on opposite sides of cell, randomly lining up to the left or right of each other
  • one pair of sister chromatids connected to each pole
80
Q

anaphase I process

A

pairs of homologous chromosomes split up (chromatids remain attached) and migrate to poles

81
Q

telophase I process

A
  • nuclear membrane forms and cells cleave apart

* results in two genetically different daughter cells, 23 chromosomes in each (haploid)

82
Q

meiosis II basics

A

sister chromatids separate; two haploids become four

83
Q

meiosis II process

A

same as mitosis, except meiosis II starts with two genetically different haploid cells and produces two more, whereas mitosis starts with one diploid cell and produces one identical diploid cell

84
Q

reasons meiosis results in genetically different cells

A

recombination, random alignment, additional copies

85
Q

genetics

A

study of heredity

86
Q

black box of genetics

A

represents what we didn’t know about inherited traits

87
Q

allele

A

alternate version of a gene occurring at a given locus, one from each parent on each chromosome

88
Q

homozygous

A

same allele occurring at a given locus

89
Q

heterozygous

A

different allele occurring at a given locus

90
Q

locus

A

a specific location of a gene along the chromosome

91
Q

Mendel’s contributions

A
  • genes are material elements (chromosomes)
  • genes come in pairs (homologous chromosomes)
  • elements can retain character through generations (at times expressed or not)
  • gene pairs separate when forming gametes (meiosis)
92
Q

why peas are an ideal test subject for genetics

A
  • short time between generations
  • simple, with two characteristics (either/or)
  • easy to care for
93
Q

characteristics of monohybrid cross

A
  • start with true bred parent (P) for specific trait, bred for several generations to weed out alternates
  • two P plants produce hybrid plants
  • F1 generation receives 50% chance of each trait, but dominant wins out, so all in F1 generation display dominant trait
  • F2 generation is 3:1 (¾ dominant, ¼ recessive)
94
Q

RR

A

homozygous dominant

95
Q

rr

A

homozygous recessive

96
Q

Rr

A

heterozygous

97
Q

characteristics of dihybrid cross

A

start with true breed P, but breeding for two traits instead of one

9:3:3:1 probability (9/16, 3/16, 3/16, 1/16)

Bio 101 (3 decks)

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