Exam 2 Flashcards by Lilly Hernandez

Personality traits (increase/decrease) in rank-order consistency across adulthood. This is known as the…principle of personality development

Increase, Cumulative Continuity

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Rank-order consistency is typically evaluated by examining…correlations. These correlations reach their peak during approximately which age period? (Age 18-30/age 30-40/age 50-60/age 60-75)

Test-retest, age 50-60

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The maturity principle of personality development states that people show mean-level increases in “healthy” or “mature” traits as they grow older. In particular, people tend to increase in which three of the Big Five traits?

Conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability

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We tend to see the greatest mean-level change during which period of adulthood? (i.e., defined as ages…)

Young adulthood, ages 18-40

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Bleidorn at al. (2013) examined mean-level changes in the Big Five traits from ages 16-40 and the normative timing of adult-role transitions across 62 countries (N = 884,328).
What were the two contrasting theories that Bleidorn et al. (2013) were trying to test in this research? What is the key difference between what these two theories predict?

Five-factor theory (FFT) and Social Investment Theory (SIT), differ in cultural expectations regarding timing of adult-role transitions

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Bleidorn et al. (2013) examined mean-level changes in the Big Five traits from ages 16-40 and the normative timing of adult-role transitions across 62 countries (N = 884,328).
Bleidorn et al. (2013) found (accelerated or more pronounced/decelerated or less pronounced/similar) increases in Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Emotional Stability from ages 16-40 in countries with an earlier normative timing of job-role transitions

Accelerated or more pronounced

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Bleidorn et al. (2013) examined mean-level changes in the Big Five traits from ages 16-40 and the normative timing of adult-role transitions across 62 countries (N = 884,328).
Overall, these findings support which of the two theories?

Social Investment Theory (SIT)

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Although researchers tend to focus on average trends across people, individuals also show considerable variability in how their trait levels change over time (i.e., individual differences in change). Research by Schwaba et al. (2018, 2023) suggests that this variability, or the extent to which people show diverging pathways of personality change, tends to be greatest during which period of adulthood?

Young adulthood (18-40)

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Dugan et al. (2024) following N ~ 5,000 adults between 18-87 years old, who completed up to 24 monthly, online assessments of their Big Five traits. Each month, they reported whether they experienced 25 major (e.g., graduating, becoming a parent) and “minor” life events (e.g., having a fight with a partner, accomplishing something they were proud of) within the past month, and their subjective perceptions of each event they experienced (how stressful/positive they perceived the event to be):
Which kind of events–major or minor–were associated with greater post-event changes in participants’ slopes, or rates of personality change? That is, when considering just a single occurrence of each event:

Major events

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Dugan et al. (2024) following N ~ 5,000 adults between 18-87 years old, who completed up to 24 monthly, online assessments of their Big Five traits. Each month, they reported whether they experienced 25 major (e.g., graduating, becoming a parent) and “minor” life events (e.g., having a fight with a partner, accomplishing something they were proud of) within the past month, and their subjective perceptions of each event they experienced (how stressful/positive they perceived the event to be):
The results suggested that the effects of most minor life events (e.g., one’s partner doing something special) were (transient/enduring), and therefore, predicted (greater/lesser) cumulative personality change over time (when accounting for multiple occurrences of minor events)

Enduring, greater

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Dugan et al. (2024) following N ~ 5,000 adults between 18-87 years old, who completed up to 24 monthly, online assessments of their Big Five traits. Each month, they reported whether they experienced 25 major (e.g., graduating, becoming a parent) and “minor” life events (e.g., having a fight with a partner, accomplishing something they were proud of) within the past month, and their subjective perceptions of each event they experienced (how stressful/positive they perceived the event to be):
Did people’s subjective perceptions of life events predict personality change better than simply recording the objective occurrence of the event (report whether it happened) (Yes/No)? This finding was particularly true/supported for which of the Big Five traits?

Yes, Neuroticism

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According to the…of personality development, people’s personalities lead them to enter specific environments and have specific experiences, and those experiences and environments change the traits that led them to that particular situation

Corresponsive Principle

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According to the TESSERA framework of personality change, situations must push or “stretch” your personality either above or below its current level in order to produce personality change (True/False)

True

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Matz and Harari (2020) conducted research on personality-place transactions in everyday life. They asked N = 2,350 college students to complete an initial assessment of their Big Five traits and then tracked them in an EMA study for 14 days, assessing their location and personality states at random time points throughout the day. They found that:
People’s personality trait levels at the initial assessment (did/did not) predict the frequency with which they visited/spent time in various places. For example, people higher in…spent more time in their car and at the gym

Did, Extraversion, Conscientiousness

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Matz and Harari (2020) conducted research on personality-place transactions in everyday life. They asked N = 2,350 college students to complete an initial assessment of their Big Five traits and then tracked them in an EMA study for 14 days, assessing their location and personality states at random time points throughout the day. They found that:
The kinds of places people were in at the time they were assessed more…and…everywhere relative to home, and more…almost everywhere but the library

Agreeable and Conscientiousness, Neurotic

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Matz and Harari (2020) conducted research on personality-place transactions in everyday life. They asked N = 2,350 college students to complete an initial assessment of their Big Five traits and then tracked them in an EMA study for 14 days, assessing their location and personality states at random time points throughout the day. The found that:
The frequency with which people experienced place-driven personality states predicted changes in their traits over the study period (True/False)

True

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Baranski et al (2017) surveyed > 13,000 college students from 56 countries. They used an open-ended format to ask people if there was any part of their personality that they wished to change. Around the world (20%/40%/60%/80%) of participants, on average, reported that they wanted to/were trying to change their personalities

60%

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In Hudson et al. (2019), N = 377 undergraduate students participated in 15-week longitudinal study. At Time 1, students completed the BFI-2 and selected a Big Five trait that they wanted to work on changing over the course of the semester. They were then presented with a list of specific, trait-relevant “challenges” varying in difficulty (e.g., smile at a stranger, go on a “photo hunt”) and were allowed to accept up to 4 challenges to complete that week. Each subsequent week, they reported on the frequency with which they successfully completed each challenge they accepted, and were allowed to accept up to 4 new challenges if they wished. The researchers tracked their personality traits across the study. They found that:
…a greater number of challenges predicted more positive growth, or change, in conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability

Successfully completing

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In Hudson et al. (2019), N = 377 undergraduate students participated in 15-week longitudinal study. At Time 1, students completed the BFI-2 and selected a Big Five trait that they wanted to work on changing over the course of the semester. They were then presented with a list of specific, trait-relevant “challenges” varying in difficulty (e.g., smile at a stranger, go on a “photo hunt”) and were allowed to accept up to 4 challenges to complete that week. Each subsequent week, they reported on the frequency with which they successfully completed each challenge they accepted, and were allowed to accept up to 4 new challenges if they wished. The researchers tracked their personality traits across the study. They found that:
Controlling for challenges actually completed, accepting a greater number of challenges predicted…suggesting that accepting challenges (setting goals) and then failing to complete them can backfire

Negative trait changes

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Which of the Big Five traits show the greatest change in response to therapy?

Neuroticism

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Therapeutic interventions tend to have the greatest impact on personality traits within the first…weeks or so, followed by less pronounced changes in traits in subsequent weeks

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When researchers have followed up with individuals a year after participating in therapy, they found that therapy produced little-to-no, long-term changes in personality traits, or the effects of therapy had faded with time (True/False)

False

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Self-determination theory was developed because researchers Deci and Ryan (1985) believed that the quality or nature of one’s motivation was important, not just the quantity of one’s motivation (True/False)

False

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Self-determination theory proposes that people’s psychological well-being and optimal functioning is predicated on meeting three psychological needs:

Autonomy, competence, relatedness

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When people place relatively strong importance on extrinsic aspirations, and also when they attain the extrinsic aspirations they desire, what do they tend to feel or experience?

Psychological ill-being (depression, anxiety, low self-esteem)

Sheldon and Krieger (2014) followed large samples of private-firm lawyers who had jobs within money-focused firms (e.g., securities-related work) and public-service lawyers who had jobs focused on serving the public (e.g., sustainability-related work for nonprofits). They found that: Lawyers in the money-focused jobs had (greater/lesser) extrinsic aspirations relative to the public service group

Greater

Sheldon and Krieger (2014) followed large samples of private-firm lawyers who had jobs within money-focused firms (e.g., securities-related work) and public-service lawyers who had jobs focused on serving the public (e.g., sustainability-related work for nonprofits). They found that: Lawyers in the money-focused jobs earned (higher/lower) annual incomes, relative to the public service group

Higher

Sheldon and Krieger (2014) followed large samples of private-firm lawyers who had jobs within money-focused firms (e.g., securities-related work) and public-service lawyers who had jobs focused on serving the public (e.g., sustainability-related work for nonprofits). They found that: Lawyers in the money-focused group reported (higher/lower) well-being and (more/less) alcohol consumption, compared to the group of public service lawyers

Lower, more

Which two kinds of life goals are viewed as highly important during young adulthood, but then become less important to people as they grow older?

Successful career and personal fulfillment

Which life goal, though related to self-fulfillment, is an exception to the two kinds of goals that are viewed as highly important during young adulthood, but then become less important to people as they grow older? In what period of life does this goal increase in importance once again, at least for a while?

Goals to travel, after retirement

The importance of social goals generally (increases/decreases) with age; this trend was particularly strong for the goal of being socially/politically involved

Increases

Buchinger et al. (2024) examined the co-development of the Big Five traits and nine life goals across multiple assessment waves, covering a study period of 13 years (N = 55,040, ages: 18-103 years). They found that: Agentic life goals with a focus on economic achievement, specifically career success, co-developed with which two of the Big Five traits?

Conscientiousness and Extraversion

Buchinger et al. (2024) examined the co-development of the Big Five traits and nine life goals across multiple assessment waves, covering a study period of 13 years (N = 55,040, ages: 18-103 years). They found that: Agentic life goals with a focus on personal growth (i.e., self-fulfillment and traveling) co-developed with which two of the Big Five traits?

Extraversion and Openness

According to Fishbein and Ajzen (1974), one's commitment to a goal is a function of...(we have to want it) x...(we have to believe it is achievable)

The value of the goal x the expectancy it will be achieved

During goal pursuit, individuals calculate the discrepancy between their...(i.e., goal-related actions completed) and their...(i.e., "achieving the goal"). This is known as the cybernetic process of self-regulation

Current state, desired end state

If individuals perceive that they have achieved a higher-than-expected rate of closing discrepancy (e.g., getting ahead on a class project), this creates (positive/negative) feelings, and leads to (increased/reduced) effort and (shifts in focus to other goals/a narrowing of one's focus on the present goal)

Positive, reduced, shifts in focus to other goals

Research also distinguishes between two distinct self-regulatory orientations in pursuing a goal: ...focus: emphasizes safety, responsibility, and security needs, and views goals as "oughts"; focuses on avoiding losses

Prevention

Research also distinguishes between two distinct self-regulatory orientation in pursuing a goal: ...focus: emphasizes hopes, accomplishments, and advancement needs, and views goals as "wants"; focuses on gains

Promotion

Wilmot and Ones (2019) aggregated across 92 unique meta-analyses reporting the correlations between conscientiousness and 175 distinct occupational variables (N > 1.1 million participants), including goal-setting, self-efficacy, procrastination, job performance, etc. They found that conscientiousness is one of the best predictors of commonly studied occupational variables, showing robust effects in a desirable direction for ...% of variables

98%

RIASEC stands for:

Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional

Be able to match the RIASEC Interests with their corresponding definitions and some prototypical or example careers that emphasize those interests: Scientific and research pursuits (e.g., biologist, veterinarian, chemist)

Investigative

Be able to match the RIASEC Interests with their corresponding definitions and some prototypical or example careers that emphasize those interests: Self-expression and creativity typically associated with the performing, writing, and visual arts (e.g., writer, actor)

Artistic

Be able to match the RIASEC Interests with their corresponding definitions and some prototypical or example careers that emphasize those interests: Working with hands, tools, materials (e.g., farmworker, carpenter, locksmith)

Realistic

Be able to match the RIASEC Interests with their corresponding definitions and some prototypical or example careers that emphasize those interests: Ordered and systematic manipulation of data with clear standards (e.g., accountant, bank teller, inspector)

Conventional

Be able to match the RIASEC Interests with their corresponding definitions and some prototypical or example careers that emphasize those interests: Selling, managing, and having social influence (e.g., salesperson, manager)

Enterprising

Be able to match the RIASEC Interests with their corresponding definitions and some prototypical or example careers that emphasize those interests: Helping, nurturing, and mentoring others (e.g., teacher, counselor)

Social

Meta-analyses have found that person-environment fit, or the degree to which one's vocational interests match the interests, tasks, and pursuits emphasized in their chosen vocation, is correlated, on average, ...with job satisfaction and shares a correlation of ...with job performance

0.19, 0.32

Vocational interests predicting non-work outcomes: They found that participants' social interests score was a (stronger/just as strong/weaker) predictor of relationship outcomes, including their likelihood of a person getting married and having children, compared to the Big Five traits

Stronger

Vocational interests predicting non-work outcomes: ...interests predicted relationship outcomes to a similar degree (accounted for similar proportions of the variance), as the Big Five traits

Conventional

Vocational Interests predicting non-work outcomes: The Big Five traits (mostly neuroticism) outperformed vocational interests in predicting ...outcomes only

Health

In Ainsworth's (1978) Strange Situation procedure, identify which label/category that children might receive if they demonstrated the following: Child is already ill at ease when caregiver is in the room and becomes extremely distressed when separated from caregiver, is unable to be soothed upon reunion, may try to "punish" caregiver for leaving

Anxious-resistant

In Ainsworth's (1978) Strange Situation procedure, identify which label/category that children might receive if they demonstrated the following: Child plays and explores the environment when caregiver is in the room, and is visibly distressed when separated from caregiver; actively seeks out caregiver upon reunion and is easily comforted

Secure

In Ainsworth's (1978) Strange Situation procedure, identify which label/category that children might receive if they demonstrated the following: Child does not show typical signs of distress when separated from caregiver, and upon reunion, refrains from seeking comfort from their caregiver, turning their attention to play objects on the laboratory floor

Avoidant

Anxious-resistant attachment styles are believed to be rooted in experiences with caregivers who are:

Inconsistent in availability and support

Avoidant attachment styles are believed to be rooted in experiences with caregivers who are:

Consistently unresponsive

Relationship-specific attachment styles (e.g., mother-specific attachment styles and partner-specific attachment styles) tend to share only...correlations, ranging between r = ...to... What does this mean (in practical or everyday language?

Small to moderate, .20 to .40, people have different attachment styles with different relationships

According to attachment scholars, attachment relationships are characterized by three functions-- The desire to spend time with the close other and the tendency to draw near to them:

Proximity seeking

According to attachment scholars, attachment relationships are characterized by three functions-- Turns to the close other for comfort in times of distress:

Safe haven

According to attachment scholars, attachment relationships are characterized by three functions-- Views the close other as the base from which one explores the world

Secure base

According to attachment scholars, attachment relationships are characterized by three functions. During young adulthood, a majority of people begin to rely primarily on their...for their attachment-related needs, including the "third" attachment function, ...(or if not partnered, a...)

Romantic partner, secure base, best friend

The...suggests that early experiences with warm and supportive caregivers "set the stage" for positive social development, but people's attachment working models are not "set in stone." Attachment styles remain open to revisions based on "corrective experiences with friends, partners, etc

Organizational perspective

The Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD) followed participants and their families from the time study children were one month old until they were 30 years old. Researchers examined early levels and growth in the quality of participants' interpersonal experiences with their mothers, fathers, friends, and romantic partners (during adolescence) as predictors of their general and relationship-specific attachment styles at age 30. The quality of participants' early experiences with their...predicted their general, mother-, father-, partner-, and best friend-specific attachment styles in adulthood (ALL attachment styles assessed)

Mothers

The Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD) followed participants and their families from the time study children were one month old until they were 30 years old. Researchers examined early levels and growth in the quality of participants' interpersonal experiences with their mothers, fathers, friends, and romantic partners (during adolescence) as predictors of their general and relationship-specific attachment styles at age 30. The quality of participants' friendships during childhood predicted their attachment styles in (horizontal/vertical) attachment relationships in adulthood, including their...and...

Horizontal, best friends and romantic partners

The Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SCCYD) followed participants and their families from the time study children were one month old until they were 30 years old. Researchers examined early levels and growth in the quality of participants' interpersonal experiences with their mothers, fathers, friends, and romantic partners (during adolescence) as predictors of their general and relationship-specific attachment styles at age 30. The quality of participants' friendships during childhood had weak-to-no effects on their attachment styles in (horizontal/vertical) attachment relationships in adulthood (e.g., ...and...)

Vertical, mother and father

Fraley and Roisman (2019) explain the increasing rank-order stability (or consistency) in attachment styles in terms of:

Socialization-Selection Asymmetries

(definition): Early in life, or in a relationship, people are relatively malleable and are shaped by their caregiving environments (i.e., environment --> person)

Socialization

(definition): As people develop, they come to play a greater role in shaping their environments by evoking specific responses from others, by interpreting experiences, or by selecting themselves into relationships or contexts that are consistent with their expectations. This leads to greater rank-order stability (i.e., person --> environment)

Selection

Romantic partners tend to have similar levels of attachment anxiety and avoidance (i.e., research finds positive correlations between their attachment anxiety and avoidance scores) (True/False)

True

Research suggests that, during attraction, attachment...levels, or individuals' preferences in terms of levels of intimacy and independence, are ore important than how positively or negatively individuals feel about themselves within their relationships (i.e., where individuals fall on the attachment...dimension)

Avoidance

According to Attachment Security Enhancement Model (ASEM): Which "soft strategies" are recommended for buffering insecurity experienced by partner high in attachment anxiety during triggering situations?

Managing others' desire to avoid emotionally charged interactions, converting how and why certain requests and needs in relationships are reasonable

According to Attachment Security Enhancement Model (ASEM): Which "safe strategies" are recommended for buffering insecurity experienced by partners high in attachment avoidance during triggering situations?

Conveying a strong and intimate emotional bond, de-escalating heightened negative emotions

According to Attachment Security Enhancement Model (ASEM): Which strategies are recommended for people higher in attachment anxiety for moving towards longer-term security?

Confidence building: feeling increasingly valued and capable in personal domains, increased comfort with autonomy and independence

According to Attachment Security Enhancement Model (ASEM): Which strategies are recommended for people higher in attachment avoidance for moving towards longer-term security?

Positive dependence: feeling increasingly valued and capable in interpersonal domains, increased comfort with dependence

Research has investigated the extent to which people ted to form friendships with others who have similar levels of personality traits. According to the review by Harris and Vazire (2016), research has found the strongest evidence for which two of the Big Five traits (i.e., that friends tend to have similar levels of these two traits)?

Extraversion and Openness

Research suggests that...(which of the Big Five traits?) is important for predicting romantic relationship outcomes, including romantic relationship satisfaction and likelihood of relationship dissolution (e.g., divorce, break up), but doesn't appear to be as important for predicting friendship quality, as reported by friends (no partner effects)

Conscientiousness

Research has found hat individual differences in two of the Big Five traits, ...and... predict friendship quality, as reported by BOTH individuals (actor effects) and their friends (partner effects)

Agreeableness and Openness

Extraversion is a strong predictor of being liked by others, BUT ONLY at (high/low) levels of acquaintance. Higher levels of extraversion predict higher (self-reported/friend-reported) friendship quality, but NOT (self-reported/friend-reported) friendship quality

Low, self-reported, friend-reported

Define the acronym TESSERA

Triggering situation Expectancy State/state expression Reaction

Describe how personality change occurs according to the TESSERA framework, using a real-life example

A shy person who's triggered by a social event expects to feel awkward, experiences anxiety, and then reacts by avoiding interaction

Describe two of the arguments made by McLean and Klimstra (2025) regarding normative interpretations in personality research

Argues that researchers should critically examine the use of value-laden labels like "mature" or "healthy" when interpreting personality data Argues that personality research relies on constructs developed within specific socio-cultural contexts and then applies them universally, neglecting the diverse experiences and values of different groups