Exam 2 Flashcards
Frontal lobe development
o Brain growth slows during early childhood
o Children’s brains undergo rapid, distinct spurts of growth, especially in the frontal lobes
Leading causes of death in children
Accidents
Homicide
Congenital malformations
Deformations and chromosomal abnormalities
Piaget’s preoperational stage (age & what is happening in this stage)
o Ages: About 2 to 7 years old
Children represent the world with words, images, and drawings
They form stable concepts and begin to reason
They do not yet perform operations (reversible mental actions that allow them to do mentally what they formerly did physically)
Examples of Paiget’s preoperational stage
Egocentrism
Animism
Centration
Conservation
Egocentrism
the inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s
Animism
the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action
Centration
a centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others
Conservation
the awareness that altering an object or substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
the range of tasks too difficult for the child alone but that can be learned with guidance
- Scaffolding
Scaffolding
changing the level of support and instruction provided based on need; as competence increases, less guidance is given
Example of scaffolding
A child is struggling to fit puzzle pieces into correct spots. The teacher observes and asks, “What shape does this piece look like?” or “What color does this piece match?”
Private speech
refers to the use of language for self-regulation
Attention
the ability to focus mental resources on select information; improves significantly in the preschool years
Memory
the retention of information over time is central to cognitive development
Short-term memory
individuals can retain information up to 30 seconds with no rehearsal; increases during early childhood
Considerations to implement when reading to children
o Initiate conversations: ask how they are feeling
o Encourage them to ask questions about stories
o Using “what” and “why” questions (e.g. What do you think is going to happen next?)
o Choose books that play with language (e.g. Creative books on the alphabet, rhymes)
Early childhood education types
Child-centered kindergarten
Montessori approach
Developmentally appropriate practice
Head Start
Child-centered kindergarten
emphasizes education of the whole child and concern for their physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development
Experimenting, exploring, discovering, trying out, restructuring, speaking, and listening
Montessori approach
children are given freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities
Fosters independence and cognitive skills
Developmentally appropriate practice
focuses on the typical developmental patterns of children and the uniqueness of each child
Age and individual appropriateness
Emphasis is on the process of learning
Head Start Program
a compensatory program designed to provide children from low income families with the opportunity to acquire the skills and experiences important for success in school
Improved parenting engagement and skills linked to child success
Evaluations support positive influence of the program in terms of both the cognitive and social worlds of disadvantaged children
Shame
a feeling about who you are
Feeling of being flawed or unworthy of love
Feeling of not being good enough
Focus on self-worth
Defines who you are
Guilt
a feeling about something you have done
Feeling of responsibility or remorse of an action
A feeling that you have done something wrong or bad
Focus is on behaviors and values
Can feel bad about behaviors, but still respect yourself
Heteronomous morality
from approximately 4 to 7 years of age; emphasis on justice and rules
* Believes in immanent justice: if a rule is broken, punishment given out immediately
Autonomous morality
older children become aware that rules and laws are created by people, and that when judging an action, one should consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences
Conscience
an internal regulation of standards of right and wrong that involves integrating moral thought, feeling, and behavior
Gender identity
the sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by the age of 3
What are some biological influences of gender?
chromosomes (female XX, male XY)
Hormonal influences of gender
- Estrogens influence development of female physical sex characteristics
- Androgens promote development of male physical sex characteristics
Gender schema theory
children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender appropriate and gender inappropriate in their culture
o Children are motivated to act in ways that conform to gender schemas created through their observations of their culture
Parenting styles
Authoritarian
Authoritative
Permissive
Neglectful
Authoritarian parenting
Restrictive
Child is to follow directions and respect parents’ work and effort
Allows little verbal exchange
Associated with children’s social incompetence and a higher level of aggression
Authoritative parenting
Encourages independence
Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed
Associated with children’s social competence and prosocial behaviors
Permissive parenting
Involved, but places little demands
Children never learn to control their own behavior and always expect to get their way
Children rarely learn respect for others
May be domineering, egocentric, and noncompliant, and they have difficulties in peer relations
Neglectful parenting
Uninvolved
Associated with social incompetence in children, along with poor self-control, low self-esteem, immaturity, and alienation
May contribute to truancy and delinquency in adolescence
Is birth order theory accurate?
We can’t predict behaviors on birth order alone
Negative impacts of too much screen time
o Making children passive learners
o Distracting from homework
o Teaching stereotypes, violent models of aggression, and unrealistic views of the world
Leading cause of death in middle/late childhood (7-11 years old)
Accidents and injuries
o Motor vehicle accidents are the most common cause of severe injury (passenger or pedestrian)
ADHD symptoms
inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity
ADHD impact in schools
difficulty focusing and staying on task, poor organization and time management, disruptive behavior, problematic peer relations, school dropout, lower academic achievement
Childhood obesity — genetics & environment
Genetics has a role
Environment: consider physical activity, eating habits, and screen time
Learning disabilities
difficulty learning, involving, understanding, or using spoken or written language
Dyslexia
severe impairment in the ability to read and spell
Dysgraphia
difficulty in handwriting
Dyscalculia
developmental arithmetic disorder
Autism spectrum disorder
range from autistic disorder to Asperger syndrome and may have a genetic basic
Concrete operational stage
Age 7-11
Conservation
Logical thinking
Reversibility
Conservation
a child understands that rearranging a row of coins does not change the number of coins
Logical thinking
a child can sort objects by size, color, or shape and understands simple cause-and-effect relationships
Reversibility
a child realizes that if 5 + 3 = 8, then 8 – 3 = 5
IQ (intelligence quotient)
a person’s mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100
Intelligence definition
the ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences
IQ formula
IQ = MA / CA x 100
Working memory
a mental “workbench” where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending language
Long-term memory
a relatively permanent type of memory that holds huge amount of information for a long period of time
o Increases with age
Intelligence testing
Binet tests
Stanford-Binet tests
Wechsler scales
Binet tests
developed concept of mental age (MA): the individual’s level of mental development relative to others
Stanford-Binet tests
obtain individual scores and a composite score in five content areas (fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial reasoning, working memory)
Wechsler scales
made for children of different ages, providing an overall IQ score and five composite scores, determining areas of strength of weakness (visual comprehension, working memory, processing speed, fluid reasoning, visual spatial)
Gardner’s multiple intelligences
o Verbal
o Mathematical
o Spatial
o Bodily-kinesthetic
o Musical
o Interpersonal
o Intrapersonal
o Naturalist: the ability to recognize plants and animals, and see patterns and organizational structures in nature
Growth mindset
believe their qualities can change and improve with their own effort
Fixed mindset
believe their qualities cannot change
Strategies with diverse students
o Turn the class into a jigsaw classroom
o Encourage students to have positive personal contact with other diverse students
o Reduce bias
o View the school and community as a team
o Be a competent cultural mediator
NCLB (No Child Left Behind)
o Standardized testing
o Teachers spending time reviewing testable content
o High expectations for all
o Identifying poor students/teachers/admin
o Critics argue did more harm than good
Peer statuses
Popular
Average
Neglected
Rejected
Controversial
Popular status
frequently considered to be a best friend, rarely disliked by peers; good listeners/communicators, are happy and control negative emotions, confident
Average status
receive an average number of both positive and negative peer reviews
Neglected status
infrequently nominated as a best friend, but not disliked by peers
Rejected status
infrequently nominated as a best friend, and actively disliked by peers
Controversial status
frequently nominated as someone’s best friend and as being disliked
Self-esteem
global evaluations of the self
Self-efficacy
the belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes
Friends & the six functions of friendships
o In childhood, friends are more similar than dissimilar
o Six functions of friendship:
Companionship
Stimulation
Physical support
Ego support
Social comparison
Affection and intimacy (self-disclosure and sharing of private thoughts)
Industry
children become interested in how things are made and how they work
When they are encouraged, their sense of industry increases
Inferiority
parents who see children’s efforts as mischief or making a mess can instead cause a sense of inferiority
Kohlberg’s Moral Development Level 1
o Level 1: Pre-conventional morality
Stage 1: Obedience and punishment — behavior driven by avoiding punishment
Stage 2: Individual interest — behavior driven by self-interest and rewards
Kohlberg’s Moral Development Level 2
o Level 2: Conventional morality
Stage 3: Interpersonal — behavior driven by social approval
Stage 4: Authority — behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming to social order
Kohlberg’s Moral Development Level 3
o Level 3: Post-conventional morality
Stage 5: Social contract — behavior driven by balance of social order and individual rights
Stage 6: Universal ethics — behavior driven by internal moral principles
Bullying
verbal or physical behavior intended to disturb someone less powerful
Bullied children report loneliness and difficulty making friends
Bullies are more likely to have low grades and smoke and drink
Cyberbullying
Related to loneliness, lower self-esteem, fewer mutual friendships, and lower populations
Linked to stress and suicidal ideation — possibly more so than traditional bullying
Male puberty characteristics
Increase in body size
Appearance of public hair, armpit hair, facial hair, chest hair
Voice change
Male hormonal characteristics
- Testosterone is associated in boys with genital development, increased height, and deepening of the voice
Female puberty characteristics
Marked weight and height gains
Pubic hair growth
Breast growth
Menarche: a girl’s first menstruation
Female hormonal characteristics
- Estradiol is a type of estrogen that in girls is associated with breast, uterine, and skeletal development
Body image
o Preoccupation with body image is strong throughout adolescence
o Girls are less happy with their bodies and have more negative body image
o Both boys’ and girls’ body images become more positive as they moved from beginning to end of adolescence
Anorexia nervosa
the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation
* Restricted energy intake
* Presence of intense fear of gaining weight
* Disturbance in how body weight is experienced
* Obsessive thinking about weight and compulsive exercise
Bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a binge-and-purge pattern
* Preoccupied with food
* Have an intense fear of becoming overweight
* Are depressed or anxious
* Have a distorted body image
* Typically fall within a normal weight range
Sleep in adolescents & impact of low sleep
Only about 25% of U.S. adolescents get 8 or more hours of sleep on an average school night
Low amounts of sleep and inconsistent sleep patterns are associated with:
* Inattention
* Emotional and peer-related problems
* Higher anxiety and levels of suicidal ideation
Nutrition in adolescents
Over 30% of 12- to 19-year-olds are overweight
Fast food meals, high in fat, are implicated, along with limited intake of fruits and vegetables, less exercise, and more sedentary activities – including high amounts of screen time
Being obese predicts obesity in adulthood
Exercise in adolescents
linked to numerous positive physical, cognitive, and emotional outcomes
Alcohol
Binge drinking defined as having 5 or more drinks in a row in the last 2 weeks
* Males engage in binge drinking more than females
* Significant declines in usage observed over recent years
Smoking
Cigarette smoking is one of the most serious yet preventable health problems among adolescents and emerging adults
* Increasing percentage of adolescents today perceive cigarette smoking as dangerous and are less accepting of being around smokers
* Substantial number are using e-cigarettes, which have a gateway effect for cigarette smoking and marijuana use
Safety in schools
expected to be a safe place where students are comfortable and can focus on learning
o Violence can easily intrude
o Most frequent to least frequent: theft, fighting, simple assault, minor altercation, robbery, threatening, bullying, vandalism, sex crimes, cutting instrument, aggravated assault, criminal trespass, other firearms, and handguns
o Many adolescents may be dealing with powerful fears after school shootings
Top dog concept
moving from being the oldest, biggest, and most powerful in elementary school to being the youngest, smallest, and least powerful in middle/junior high school
Piaget’s formal operational stage
thought to be more abstract than concrete operational thought (occurs at around age 11)
o Increased verbal problem-solving ability
o Increased tendency to think about thought itself
o Thoughts of idealism and possibilities
o More logical thought
o Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: the cognitive ability to develop hypotheses, or best guesses, about ways to solve problems
Egocentrism
heightened self-consciousness of adolescents
- Imaginary audience
- Personal fable
o Greater use of social networking is linked to higher levels of narcissism
Imaginary audience
adolescents’ belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are, as well as attention-getting behavior motivated by a desire to be noticed
Personal fable
part of adolescent egocentrism that involves a sense of uniqueness and invincibility
Cool executive function
psychological processes involving conscious control driven by logical thinking and critical analysis
Increases with age
Hot executive function
psychological processes driven by emotion, with emotion regulation as especially important process
Peaks at 14 and 15, then declines
- Briefly describe the two stages of preoperational thought. Provide an example of children’s thinking at each stage.
- Symbolic function substage: the child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present
- Egocentrism: the inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s
- Animism: the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action
- Centration: a centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others
- Conservation: the awareness that altering an object or substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties
- What is the zone of proximal development (ZPD)? What are its lower and upper limits? How can one use peer scaffolding to teach children mathematics within the zone?
o Zone of proximal development: the range of tasks too difficult for the child alone but that can be learned with guidance
o Lower limit: what a child can do alone
o Upper limit: what a child can achieve with support
o How to use peer scaffolding for math: Pair a more advanced student to help “scaffold” the less advanced peer; as the less advanced student gains confidence, gradually reduce the amount of support given by their partner
- Describe four strategies suggested by Ellen Galinsky for using books effectively with preschool children.
- Initiate conversations: ask how they are feeling
- Encourage them to ask questions about stories
- Using “what” and “why” questions (e.g. What do you think is going to happen next?)
- Choose books that play with language (e.g. Creative books on the alphabet, rhymes)
- What are the current controversies in early childhood education?
- Curriculum controversy:
i. Child-centered approach: (focus on student’s interests and needs, guide own learning and explore) vs:
ii. Academic direct-instruction approach: (teacher explicitly delivers info and includes specific steps for students to gain knowledge) - Universal preschool education
i. Should preschool education be required for all U.S. 4 year old children?
ii. In 2020, 44 states had some form of public funded preschools, despite the fact that only 4 states had allocated enough funds to pay for high quality full day preschools
iii. Quality preschools prepare children for school readiness and academic success, but critics say that it is more important to improve preschool education for disadvantaged youth rather than for all 4 year olds
- Explain Eric Erikson’s stage of initiative versus guilt. Provide an example of initiative and an example of guilt as these concepts are used by Erikson.
- Stage: children assert themselves and take control of their environment using perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills
- Initiative: having the freedom and support to explore, make decisions, and initiate activities
i. Ex: Expressing creativity by painting - Guilt: being criticized and controlled, failing to complete a task, or not meeting expectations
i. Ex. Getting in trouble by parents for making a mess while painting
- Discuss the negative influence of too much screen time on children.
- Making children passive learners
- Distracting from homework
- Teaching stereotypes, violent models of aggression, and unrealistic views of the world
- Distinguish between the two types of mindsets as described by Carol Dweck.
- Fixed mindset: believe their qualities cannot change
- Growth mindset: believe their qualities can change and improve through their own effort
- Distinguish between the constructivist and direct instruction approaches to student learning.
o Constructivist approach:
Learner centered
Emphasizes importance of individuals actively constructing own knowledge/understanding with guidance and collaboration
o Direct Instruction Approach
Teacher center
Teacher in control
Mastery of academic skills and high expectations for progress
- A high school principal sends a letter to parents stating that she is instituting a service-learning component and all students are required to participate. What is service learning? When is it most effective, and why would schools want to use it?
- Service learning: a form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community
o Most effective when students can choose their activities and can reflect on their service
o Goal: becoming less self-centered and more strongly motivated to help others
o Benefits include higher grades, increased goal setting, higher self-esteem, a greater sense of being able to make a difference, and opportunities to explore and reason about moral issues
- What role does the top-dog phenomenon play when adolescents make the transition to middle or to junior high school?
o Moving from being the oldest, biggest, and most powerful in elementary school to being the youngest, smallest, and least powerful in middle/junior high school
o Decreased social power, anxiety, and potential academic challenges as they navigate a new environment
Identity
Career
Political
Religious
Relationship
Achievement
Sexual
Cultural/ethnic
Interests
Personality
Physical
Identity statuses
Identity diffusion
Identity foreclosure
Identity moratorium
Identity achievement
Identity diffusion
The person has not explored or committed to an identity. They may feel lost or uninterested in making major life decisions
Identity foreclosure
The person has committed to an identity without exploring options, often adopting beliefs or goals from parents or authority figures
Identity moratorium
The person is actively exploring different identities but has not yet made a commitment
Identity achievement
The person has explored their options and made a committed decision about their identity
Ethnic identity
an enduring aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes and feelings related to that membership
Religious identity
Decreased likelihood of engaging in substance use and more positive health outcomes
Friendships
Most teens prefer a smaller number of friendships that are more intense and more intimate
Developmental advantages occur when friends are:
* Socially skilled
* Supportive
* Oriented toward academic achievement
Peer groups
Cliques & crowds
Clique
a small group of about 5 or 6 individuals that may form among adolescents who engage in similar activities; may also form because of friendship
Crowd
a larger group structure that is usually based on reputation
* Members may or may not spend much time together
* Most are defined by the activities adolescents engage in (“jocks” or “druggies”)
Screen time
includes how much time individuals spend watching TV or DVDs, playing video games, and using computers or mobile media devices
Nighttime mobile phone use and poor sleep behavior increases from 13 to 16 years of age
Among both girls and boys, heavy users of digital media are twice as likely to have low psychological well being
Conformity
o Peer pressure: Young adolescents conform more to peer standards than children
Boys more influenced by peer pressure involving sexual behavior than girls
Adolescents with low self-esteem and high social anxiety are most likely to conform to peers and during transitions
Problems adolescents are facing
Ethnicity, racism, juvenile delinquency, depression, suicide
Ethnicity problems
Immigrants often experience stressors uncommon to or less prominent among long-time residents
* Language barriers
* Dislocations and separations from support networks
* The dual struggle to preserve identity and to acculturate
* Changes in socioeconomic status
Racism
discrimination or prejudice against a person or people based on their racial or ethnic group
Juvenile delinquency
adolescent who breaks the law or engages in behavior that is considered illegal
Males more likely to engage in delinquency than females
Rates higher among minority groups and lower-SES youth
Causes:
* Lower-SES culture
* Parents less skilled in discouraging antisocial behavior
* Siblings and delinquent peers
Depression factors & treatment
Factors: genes, family factors, poor peer relationships
Treatment: Drug therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, interpersonal therapy
Suicide risk factors
history of family instability and unhappiness, lack of supportive friendships, cultural contexts and genetics, depressive symptoms
