Exam 2 Flashcards
What is an open circulatory system?
Not confined to blood vessels and contains hemolymph
What is a closed circulatory system?
Contains blood that is confined to blood vessels. Has a high pressure.
What is the main difference in structure between veins and arteries?
Arteries are much thicker than veins
What are the tissue structures of veins and arteries?
Endothelium, Elastic tissue (only arteries), muscle tissue, fibrous tissue
What does a pressure difference in capillaries create?
Interstitial fluid and lymph
What animal has a 2 chambered heart?
Fish
what animals has a 3 chambered heart?
amphibians, turtles, lizards, snakes
What animals have a 4 chambered heart?
Crocodilians, birds, mammals
What does a two chambered heart do?
Pumps only deoxygenated blood
What is special about a three chambered heart?
Oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood are both in the ventricle
What is special about the 4 chambered heart?
Seperation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
What is diastole of the heart beat?
The relaxation of the heart muscle
What is systole of the heart beat?
The contraction of the heart muscle
What is the track of blood?
Heart, aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries
How does the level of pressure trend after leaving the heart?
It lowers as it returns to the heart.
What is the function of the SA node?
Signal the atria to contract
What is the function of the AV node?
Signal the ventricles to contract
Which animals can perform gas exchange by diffusion?
Those that have thin body with enough surface area.
What is the O2 concentration of the air we breathe?
21%, 78% N2
What is the concentration of O2 in water?
less that 1%
How do you calculate the partial pressure of gas?
Atmospheric pressure x % of that gas
What happens to the partial pressure of oxygen as elevation increases?
It decreases
What is the equation that tells us how fast gases diffuse?
K x A x (P2-P1)/D
How does the unidirectional flow of water work across fish gills?
Countercurrent flow of water and blood.
How does countercurrent flow maximize O2 exchange?
Because it always allows the concentration gradient to be maintained which means always able to gain oxygen
What are tracheae tracheae?
Tubules branch to each cell, spiracles regulate openings that prevent drying out
How do tracheae work?
Inhalation: Muscles relax, tracheal volume increases, air enters
Exhalation: Muscles contract, tracheal volume decreases, air leaves
What are alveoli?
Provide a large enough surface area between the air in lungs and the blood in the capillaries
How do lungs work in amphibians and lungfish?
Positive pressure breathing, swallow air, and can absorb O2 through skin.
How du humans breathe?
Negative pressure breathing
What happens when the diaphragm contracts?
Opens the pleural cavity and pulls in air (inhalation)
What happens when the diaphragm relaxes?
we exhale
What do lungs do in response to pressure changes in the chest cavity?
expand and contract
What is tidal volume?
Amount of air inhaled and exhaled at rest
What is vital capacity?
Max. air volume that can be inhaled and exhaled
What is residual volume?
amount of air remaining in the lungs that can’t be forced out.
What happens when the wind gets knocked out of you?
The diaphragm spasms and can’t contract properly
How do reptiles breathe?
Rib muscles, locomotion, respiration
What are the characteristics of bird lungs?
Highly effective, parabronuhi tubule, no alveoli, one way flow
What causes an increase in breathing rate?
Increase in CO2 results in in H ions which causes a low ph, which is monitored in carotid arteries
What is the composition of mammal blood?
55% plasma, 45% RBC, 1% Buffy coat
What is in plasma?
Mainly water, inorganic electrolytes, proteins, clotting factors, immunoglobulins, buffers
What are erythrocytes?
RBC’s responsible for gas transport
What are leukocytes?
White blood cells responsible for defense and often found outside of the circulatory system
What are platelets?
Clotting factors
what is cooperative binding?
As each O2 molecule is bound, it reconfigures hemoglobin to make it more receptive, vice versa for giving off
What molecules carry O2?
Hemoglobin (in blood, carreis four O2), myoglobin (in muscle, carry 1 molecule of O2)
What is the difference in amount of O2 delivered between cooperative and non cooperative binding?
The amount of O2 delivered between rest and exercise.
What is the bohr shift?
When more CO2 is detected, there is a lower affinity for O2 in hemoglobin. Lower PH causes more O2 released
Does myoglobin have a high affinity?
Yes
What is affinity?
the strength in which a molecule holds O2
how in CO2 transported in the blood?
- Dissolved in plasma- 7%
- Bond to amino groups of hemoglobin- 23%
- Bicarbonate ions in plasma - 70%
what does bicarbonate transport achieve in red blood cells?
To maintain electrical neutrality
What are the different steps in cellular respiration?
glycolysis, pyruvate processing, citric acid cycle, electron transport and oxidative phosphorlyzation.
Where does glycolysis occur?
Cytosol
Where does pyruvate processing and citric acid cycle occur?
Mitochondrial matrix (Euks), cytosol (Proks)
Where does electron transport and oxidative phosphorlyzation occur?
Mitochondrial inner membrane (Euks), plasma membrane (proks)
What is a catabolic pathway?
Breakdown complex nutrients, release in energy
What is an anabolic pathway?
Build complex molecules using energy
How much energy is inputed to glycolysis?
2 ATP
What is the energy payoff of glycolysis?
4 ATP, 2 NADH
What is the net gain of glycolysis?
2 ATP, 2 NADH
What does glycolysis produce?
2 pyruvate molecules (3 C each)
How is phosphofructokinase regulated?
Competitive inhibition of high levels of ATP
What is the payoff from pyruvate processing?
2 CO2, 2 NADH
What is produced from pyruvate processing?
2 Acetyl COA (2 carbon sugar)
What is the payoff from the citric acid cycle?
6 NADH, 2 ATP, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2
What is the payoff per Acetyl CoA?
1 ATP, 1 FADH2, 3 NADH, 2 CO2
What is the citric acid cycle regulated by?
feedback inhibition, inhibited by the products ATP and NADH
What is the full production of glucose oxidation?
4 ATP, 10 NADH, 2 FADH2, 6 CO2
What is oxidation?
loss of electrons (C is oxidized)
What is reduction?
Gain of electrons (O is reduced)
What are NADH and FADH2 used as?
Electron donors in the electron transport chain.
Why is O2 the ultimate electron acceptor?
because of its high electronegativity
Why does the electron transport chain pump protons into the inter membrane space?
To create a proton gradient, or a proton motive force.
What does the proton gradient drive?
ATP synthase (oxidative phosphorlyzation), used as a loader to load the last phosphate onto an ADP
How much ATP is produced in oxidative phosphorlyzation?
25 ATP
How much glucose is produced per glucose molecule?
29 ATP
What is fermentation?
Allows regeneration of NAD+, substrate level phosphorlyzation of ATP. transfer a phosphate from a substrate to ATP
What are dendrites?
Collect incoming signals
What is the cell body?
Integrates signals, generates outgoing signal to axon
What is the function of the axon?
sends signals to dendrites of another cell or to an effector cell
Where do neurons connect with each other?
At a synapse
What are the 3 different types of neurons?
Sensory, interneuron, motor
How is a nerve organized?
Many axons in a protective sheath
What is a neuron doing a rest?
Na/K pump moves sodium out and potassium in, K channels all K to leak out, net negative charge
What is the neuron at rest?
Polarized, outside(+), inside (-), -70 mV
How do voltage gated channels work?
When the membrane is depolarized, conformational changes open the voltage gated channel.
What happens at the depolarization phase?
Na gates open K gates close
What happens during repolarization?
Na gates close, K open
How is resting potential restored?
Na, K pumps
How does the propagation of an action potential travel?
By continuous Na channels opening, spread as a wave of depolarization
What is saltatory conduction?
Action potential jumps down an axon
How is saltatory conduction carried out?
By the action potential jumping from node of ranvier to node of ranvier
What is myelination?
Prevents ions from leaking out
where is the action potential generated during saltatory conduction?
At the next node of ranvier
What does the speed of action potentials depend on?
Diameter and mylenation
What neuron has the highest speed?
Highest myelination and diameter
Why do we feel touch first?
Because it is a large myelinated axon
Why do we feel pain last?
Because it is a small unmyelinated fibers
How are signals transmitted across synapses?
- Action potential triggers influx of Ca
- Vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane and release neurotransmitter.
- Neurotransmitters bind to receptors, and open ion channels.
How does lead impair neurotransmitters?
Prevents Ca from entering and can trigger NT release in the absence of an action potential
what is a motor endplate?
Nerve muscle synapse, produces NT acetylcholine
What are EPSP?
Make postsynaptic action more likely.
What are IPSP?
Make postsynaptic action less likely.
What is the human nervous system consist of?
Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system
What does the CNS consist of?
Brian and spinal cord
What does the PNS consist of?
Cranial and spinal nerves
When is the parasympathetic division active?
unstressful conditions
When is the sympathetic division active?
stressful conditions
What are the parts and functions of the human brain?
- Diencephalon- Thalamus and hypothalamus, relays sensory information and controls homeostasis.
- Cerebrum- conscious thought and memory
- Brain stem- Autonomic center for regulating heart, lungs, and digestive system
4.Cerebellum- coordinates complex motor problems
What are the different lobes and functions of the cerebrum?
- Frontal lobe-voluntary movement, judgement, memory
- Primary motor cortex
- central sulcus
4.primary somatosensory cortex - parietal lobe- body awareness, complex tasks
- occipital lobe-processes visual information
- temporal lobe- processing sound, language comprehension
- corpus callosum- connects hemispheres
What is grey matter?
neuron cell bodies
What is white matter?
neuron axons with myelin and glial cells
What are the different types of mapping functional areas?
Lesion studies, electrodes, PET scan
What does the limbic system consist of?
Amygdala and hippocampus
What is the function of the amygdala?
Pleasure center
What is the function of the hippocampus?
long term memory formation
What is parkinsons disease?
neurons get destroyed, dopamine deficiency, slowed movement, tremors
How does learning occur?
Serotonin is released and as ore leraning is conducted more serotonin receptors are created and higher amounts of EPSP
What part of the brain develops last?
The frontal cortex
