Exam 2 Flashcards
Chapters 5-8
What is Availability Sampling?
elements are selected because they’re easy to find (available)
What is a Cluster?
a naturally occurring, mixed aggregate of elements in the population
What is Cross Population Generalizability?
ability to generalize findings from 1 group, population, or setting to other groups, populations, or settings
What is a disproportionate stratified random sample?
elements are selected from strata in different proportions to their actual numbers in the population
What is a ecological fallacy?
when a researcher draws conclusions about
individual-level processes based on group-level data
What are elements?
they are selected separately from the population & identified in advance
What is Generalizability (external validity)?
the degree to which the results of a study can be applied to a broader population or context beyond the specific sample studied
what is a multi-stage cluster sample?
Sampling in which elements are selected in 2 or more stages with the 1st stage being a random selection of natural clusters & the last stage being random
selection of elements within those clusters
what is a multi-stage sample?
where the sample is selected using 2 or more stages. The units selected within each stage are sampling units, but typically one set of these sampling units are the elements.
what are the non-probability sampling methods?
Availability sample, Quota sample, Purposive sample, and Snowball sample
what is the non-response?
people who don’t participate in the study although they are selected for the sample
what is the population?
the entire set of elements that we’re interested in (& that we want to generalize about)
what are probability sampling methods?
Simple random sample, Systematic random sample, Stratified random sample (proportionate stratified
random sample and disproportionate stratified
random sample) and, Multistage cluster sample
what is a proportionate stratified random sample?
each strata would be represented in proportion to their actual numbers in the population
what is a purposive sample?
each element is selected for a purpose, usually because of their unique position or special knowledge
what is a quota sample?
elements are selected to ensure the sample has certain characteristics in proportion to their numbers in the population. You’re meeting a “quota” based on a single characteristic
what is reductionist fallacy (reductionism)?
when a researcher draws conclusions about group-level processes based on individual-level data
what is a Sample?
a subset of elements (individuals or entities) from the larger population that we’re interested in
what is a sampling error?
any difference between the characteristics of a sample & the characteristics of the population from which it was selected
what are sampling units?
units selected at each stage of a multi-stage design, who may or may not be the study elements. Information about the elements may be gathered from other sampling units.
what are simple random sample?
Every sample element is selected only on the basis of chance through a random process. Requires a procedure that generates numbers or identifies cases just based on chance (e.g., rolling a die, random number table)
what are single-stage samples?
individuals are sampled (they’re the sampling units) and they are the focus of the study (elements)
what is a snowball sample?
identify 1 member of the population & they recruit
more participants for study inclusion
Systematic random sample
Similar to simple random sampling, but less time-consuming. The first element is selected randomly from a list & then every nth element is selected afterward
what are units of analysis?
the units under study (typically- individuals). They are
the level of social life on which the research question is focused
2 comparison groups
1 receiving the experimental condition (treatment
or intervention) AKA experimental group; and 1 receiving no treatment or intervention AKA control group
2 conditions important in specifying causal relationships
Mechanism and context
3 conditions required to establish cause and effect (causality)
empirical association, appropriate time order, and non-spuriousness
3 sources of treatment misidentification
expectancies of experimental staff, placebo effect, and hawthorne effect
Assessment of change (posttest)
in the DV for both groups after the experimental
condition has been applied (AKA posttest)
Before-and-after design
Has a pretest & posttest but no comparison group (only an experimental group)
Cause and effect (causality)
occurs if variation in the IV is followed by variation in the DV, when all potentially relevant factors are taken into consideration
what is a cohort?
people who have all experienced a similar event or common starting point
what is contamination?
when either the experimental group or the
comparison group is aware of the other group
Control (or comparison group)
predetermined to be comparable to the
treatment group
Counterfactual
the outcome that would have occurred if the subjects who were exposed to the treatment were not exposed but given identical experiences to those who did get the treatment. Also, the situation as it would have been in the absence of variation in the IV
what is cross-sectional research design?
a study in which data is collected at only 1 point in time
what is endogenous change?
when natural developments in the subjects (apart from the experimental treatment) account for some or all of
the observed change between pretest & posttest
what are event-based designs?
Not a true panel design because the same individuals are not followed over time. Instead, follow-up samples (after the 1st data collection) are selected from the same cohort
what are ex post facto control group design?
“after the fact” - Uses nonrandom control groups designated after the treatment
what are external events (history effect)?
things that happen outside of the
experiment that can also change the
subjects’ outcomes
what is field research (or field experiment)?
whenever studies utilize conditions of an experimental
method in a real- world setting
what is a fixed-sample panel design?
a type of longitudinal study in which data are
collected from the same individuals at 2 or more points in time
Interaction of testing and treatment
when the experimental treatment is effective
only when particular conditions (created by the experiment) occur
what is internal validity?
ability to confidently state that the relationship between
X (the IV) & Y (the DV) is causal
what are longitudinal research designs?
a study in which data are collected at 2 or more points in time, so identification of time is straightforward
what is matching?
a procedure for equating the characteristics of individuals in the experimental group & the control group
what are nonequivalent control group design?
Experimental & comparison groups that are designated before the treatment occurs (but not by random assignment!)
what is nonspuriousness?
Even if we’ve established association & time order, the relationship between the IV & the DV still might not be causal - “Correlation does not equal causation”
what are quasi-experimental designs?
research design where a comparison
group is comparable to the treatment group in important ways (such as same school cohort)
what is a random assignment
individuals who are to participate in a study are randomly divided into an experimental group and a comparison group.
what is a repeated cross-sectional design (trend study)?
a type of longitudinal study in which data are collected at 2 or more points in time from different samples of the same population
what is selection bias?
when characteristics of the experimental & comparison group subjects differ in a way that influences the outcome?
what is the solomon four-group design?
the researcher uses four groups. Two groups are treated as they would be in a classic experiment—pretest, experimental group intervention, and post-test. The other two groups do not receive the pretest, though one receives the intervention. All groups are given the post-test
what is treatment misidentification?
when the treatment itself is not what causes the outcome, but the change occurs through a process that the researcher hasn’t identified.
what are true experiments?
have at least 3 features that help us meet causal criteria:
- 2 comparison groups
- random assignment
- assessment of change
what are 5 survey designs?
-MAILED SURVEY
-GROUP SURVEY
-PHONE SURVEY
-IN-PERSON INTERVIEW
-ELECTRONIC SURVE
what are closed-ended questions?
any question for which a researcher provides research participants with options from which to choose a response; common in survery research and respondents are more likely to answer these questions.
what are double-barreled questions?
Questions that ask more than one question at the same time, which creates confusion
what are double-negative questions?
a question that contains 2 negatives (e.g.,
never, nothing, no one, cannot, etc.), which makes it hard to interpret
what are exhaustive responses?
The range of choices should cover all possible options
what is fence sitting?
Tell respondents to select the choice that best reflects their opinion (might not be perfect). Be careful when using “neutral” option.
what are filter questions?
one that establishes whether upcoming questions apply to the respondent. Useful if the questions don’t even apply to that person
what is floating (floater question)?
people who provide an opinion on a topic they know
nothing about
what is a Idiosyncratic variation?
more likely to have measurement error with 1 question
what is a index (or scale)?
constructed by combining the answers to multiple questions into 1 composite measure b/c we want as much information as possible
what are likert-type questions?
survey responses that indicate the extent to which the person agrees or disagrees with a statement
what are mixed-mode surveys?
Surveys that are conducted using more than 1
method
what are mutually exclusive responses?
The range of choices shouldn’t overlap; Ex: 1-2, 3-4, 5-6, NOT 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, etc.
what is a omnibus survey?
a survey that covers a range of topics of interest to different social scientists
what are open-ended questions?
questions that cannot be answered with a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’, and instead require the respondent to elaborate on their points
what is a questionnaire?
the survey instrument containing the questions for a
self-administered survey
what is survey research?
involves a collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions
what is complete observation?
researchers try to see things as they happen, without disrupting participants. But, the researcher’s presence might change how people respond in the situation
what is covert participation?
“undercover”. Pretends to be 1 of the subjects to gain entry to otherwise inaccessible settings. Research is kept secret
what is ethnography?
the study of a culture that some group of people share; using participant observation over a long period of time to immerse him/herself in that culture
what are field notes?
notes that describe what has been observed, heard, or
experienced in a participant observation study
what are focus groups?
Involves unstructured group interviews in which the researcher actively encourages discussion among participants on the research topic
what is going native?
to completely adopt the lifestyle or outlook of the
subjects; losing objectivity in the process
what is intensive interviewing?
Open-ended, relatively unstructured questioning in which the interviewer seeks in-depth information about the subject’s feelings, experiences, & perceptions
what are jottings?
brief notes written down quickly during the observation period
what is participant observation?
Field research in which a researcher develops a sustained & intensive relationship with people while they go about their normal activities
what are qualitative methods?
tries to understand the subjective experiences & perceptions of participants, trying to paint a picture of the full context
what is the reactive effect?
changes in behavior that are due to being observed
what is a saturation point?
when new interviews seem to gain little additional information
what is systematic observation?
Researchers develop a standard form on which to record variation in the observed setting focusing on the variables of interest
what is theoretical sampling?
a sample drawn in a sequential fashion with settings/individuals selected for study when earlier settings/individuals indicate the new ones are influential
