EXAM 1 Flashcards
STUDY FOR THE FIRST EXAM
Example of Circular Reasoning?
If such actions were not illegal, then they would not be prohibited by law.
- This doesn’t tell you anything, because the definition of illegal is “prohibited by law”, so it’s basically saying if actions are illegal then they are illegal (duh!).
- Ex: The apple iPhone is the best smartphone on earth because no one makes a better smartphone then Apple does.
What is Circular Reasoning?
Premise includes the claim that the conclusion is true.
What is Descriptive Research?
This describes the frequency or quality
-does not explain the phenomena/tries to ‘describe’
What is Epistemology
the investigation of what distinguishes objective, empirical science from opinion and personal beliefs
What is Evaluation Research?
Seeks to determine the effectiveness of a social program or intervention
What is Explanatory Research?
Seeks to identify causes & effects of social phenomena to predict how 1 phenomena will change in response to another
What is Exploratory Research?
The goal is to answer “what is going on here?” to investigate social phenomena without any prior expectations
What is the Halo/Horn Effect?
Halo effect specifically refers to positive assessments about someone. But, we use the term “horn effect” when it’s a negative connotation.
What is Historical Events Research?
a process of collecting and interpreting data about past events or ideas in order to find how they affected the present events and ideas.
What is Illogical Reasoning?
Jumping to conclusions or arguing based on invalid assumptions. Often, the conclusion does not necessarily follow the premise.
What is Inaccurate Observation?
Where our own (inaccurate) biases cloud our perceptions and make us misperceive reality.
What is Mixed Methods (triangulation)?
use both quantitative & qualitative methods to study 1 research question
Example of Inaccurate Observation?
Ex: I do a quick scan of the classroom and (inaccurately) observe that there are 50 people in class today when there are no more than 40.
What is Overgeneralization?
Error in reasoning that occurs when we conclude that what we have observed or know to be true for SOME cases is true for ALL cases
Example of Overgeneralization?
Ex: Californians are the nicest people I have ever met. So, Californians are the nicest people in the U.S.
Ex 2: The last 2 people who cut me off while driving were women. The 2 car accident I was in was with a woman. So, all women must be bad drivers.
What is Phrenology?
the study of the conformation of the skull as indicative of mental faculties and traits of character,
What is Pseudoscience?
If we rely on findings not based in the scientific method, it falls under the classification of “pseudoscience” (fake science)
What is Qualitative Methods/Research?
Used when the data focuses on participators words rather than numbers.
- This type of data may be gathered through intensive interviewing, direct observation, focus groups or content analysis.
What is Quantitative Methods/Research?
Used when the data are numbers.
- This type of data is typically gathered through surveys, interviews, & official reports.
What is Resistance to Change?
The unwillingness to change our ideas in light of new information (3 reasons).
What are the 3 reasons for Resistance to Change?
- Ego-based commitments
- Excessive Devotion to tradition
- Uncritical agreement to authority
What is Selective Observation?
Choosing to look only at things that align with our preferences or beliefs. Things that “fit the pattern” of our beliefs.
What is Triangulation?
the same as mixed methods; uses quantitative and qualitative research to study one research question.
Examples of Selective Observation?
- Ex: John believes all crime is rooted in atheism. He assembles a list of violent crimes where the perpetrators didn’t believe in God, while ignoring all crimes perpetrated by religious individuals.
- Ex 2: Sarah is convinced that all kids who are violent are unlikely to be rehabilitated & will continue committing violent offenses in adulthood. But what about young people who become productive non-violent adults?
What is Authenticity?
To fairly reflect the perspectives of the participants in a study setting & it’s even more important for researchers who study our subjective social worlds
What is a Constant?
a characteristic or value that does not change; only takes 1 value.
ex; race, eye color, sex at birth
What is Cross-Population Generalizability?
when findings about 1 group, population, or setting hold true for other groups, populations, or settings
What is Deductive Reasoning/Research?
-moves from general idea to specific reality
- typically “theory-driven”
What is Dependent Variable?
The proposed outcome or effect.
- The dependent variable depends on the independent variable
How to identify Dependent Variable in science?
The IV will ALWAYS come before the DV in time
- Hypothesis: Violent video games increase the likelihood that kids will become violent as adults.
- Violent video games (IV) = violence (DV)
- If-then statements: IF the independent variable increases/decreases, then the dependent variable increases/decreases”
What is a Hypothesis?
a specific implication deduced from a more general theory. It’s a tentative statement about empirical reality involving the relationship between 2 or more variables.
ex: Violent video games increase the likelihood that kids will become violent as adults.
What is Independent Variable?
the proposed cause or influence. Sometimes called the predictor variable
How to identify Independent Variable in science?
The predictor variable predicts what is going to happen in the dependent variable. It is independent from the dependent variable.
What is Inductive Reasoning/Research?
Moves from a specific reality to a general idea.
typically “data-driven” & exploratory
What is Replication?
a study that is conducted using the same or similar methods as the original investigation in order to evaluate whether consistent results can be obtained
What is Sample generalizability (generalizability)?
The extension of research findings from a study conducted on a sample to the population at large. Refers to the ability to generalize from a sample of a larger population to that population itself.
What is Theory?
a logically interrelated set of propositions about empirical reality
What is Variable?
a characteristic or property that can vary (or take on different values & attributes)
What should research questions be evaluated based on?
Feasibility, Social importance, and Scientific relevance.
What is the Belmont Report?
Established 3 basic ethical principles for the protection of human subjects: Respect for persons, Beneficence, and Justice.
What is Debriefing?
a session after an experiment in which all deception is revealed and explained and participants can ask questions
What is Deception?
when subjects are purposely misled about research procedures in an effort to determine how they would naturally react to the treatment
What is Informed Consent?
when a competent research participant voluntarily agrees to participate in a study
What is Institutional Review Board (IRB)?
Every institution has a board that reviews research proposals to ensure subjects’ protection
What is Milgram’s Obedience to Authority Experiment?
“Learner” pretended to be a volunteer & deceived participants into thinking that they were administering electronic shocks to him when he incorrectly answered a question. Most participants continue to “shock” the learner when asked by the researcher, even when the learner would beg them to stop
What is Nuremberg War Crimes Trials?
International military tribunal exposed the horrific medical experiments conducted by the Nazis in the name of “science”
What is Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment?
Followed 399 low-income African American men w/ syphilis & 201 without syphilis (but none of them were told they had it)
What is Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment?
The Stanford Prison Experiment set out to examine the psychological effects of authority and powerlessness in a prison environment. The experiment, which was scheduled to last 1-2 weeks, ultimately had to be terminated on only the 6th day as the experiment escalated out of hand when the prisoners were forced to endure cruel and dehumanizing abuse at the hands of their peers.
What are Closed-ended questions?
Have fixed response choices
What is Concept?
a mental image that summarizes a set of similar observations, feelings or ideas.
What is Conceptualization?
the process of defining all the main terms/concepts.
What is Construct Validity?
Showing that a measure is related to other measures as specified in a theory
What is Content Validity?
the measure covers the full range of the concept’s meaning
What is Criterion Validity?
Comparing scores on your measure with a more direct or already validated measure of the same thing
What is Face Validity?
If the measure has validity “on its face” ..
Ex: if we want to know about students’ drinking patterns, we wouldn’t ask about their favorite color
What is an Indicator?
the question used to indicate the value of cases on a variable
What is the Interval level of measurement?
The differences in scores between individuals have some mathematical meaning
What is Measurement validity?
Did we actually measure what we were trying to measure? If we didn’t measure what we thought we were measuring, then we have no idea what our results really mean
Which type of question has mutually exclusive and exhaustive response choices?
Close-Ended Questions
What is Nominal level of measurement?
Values of the variable have no mathematical interpretation. They vary in kind or quality but not in amount.
What are Open-ended questions?
have no response choices listed
What is Operationalization?
the process of specifying the operation (#s) that will indicate the value of a variable.
What is Ordinal Level of Measurement?
Allows “greater than” and “less than” distinctions, but has minimal mathematical precision
What is Ratio Level of Measurement?
Numbers indicating the values of a variable representing fixed measuring units with an absolute zero point
What is Reliability?
a prerequisite for measurement validity. You can’t have measurement validity without first having reliability. BUT… you can have a reliable measure that isn’t valid.
What are the Three Types of Reliability?
Test-Retest Reliability, Inter-reliability, and Intra-reliability.
What is Triangulation in Chapter 3?
use of 2 or more different measures of the same variable; strengthens measurement
What is Unobtrusive Measures?
methods of data collection where participants are completely unaware they are being observed
