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Biology 100 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Polymer

A

A long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks called monomers.

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2
Q

What are the classes of life’s macromolecules?

A

-carbohydrates
-proteins
-nucleic acids

-lipids are not polymers but are large

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3
Q

How to build and break polymers?

A

Polymers are broken down by hydrolysis
Monomers are linked by dehydration

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4
Q

Proteins are made of what

A

Amino acid polymers, bonded by peptide bonds

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5
Q

Enzymes

A

The catalyst for hydrolysis needed to break apart polymers, especially proteins. “World’s tiniest and most specialized chemists”. They are structural proteins that make up hair and fingernails. Each enzyme is highly specialized for the specific molecule they break apart.

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6
Q

How many amino acids are there?

A

Only 20, but there are over 100k proteins that can be built

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7
Q

Carbohydrates, definition, structure and function

A

Include sugars and polymers of sugar (monosaccharides and disaccharides are sugars) (polysaccharides are complex carbs). Functions as energy storage and can have a structural role.

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8
Q

Structure of monosaccharides/carbs

A

CH2O. Most common is glucose. Monosaccharides are also known as simple sugars

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9
Q

Disaccharides

A

Formed when dehydration links two monosaccharides

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10
Q

Polysaccharides

A

Starch is a storage polysaccharide of plants, made entirely of glucose monomers and is used for energy. Cellulose is a major component of plant cell walls (aka fiber)

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11
Q

What has cell walls? And who is the exception?

A

Plants (made of cellulose), fungi and bacteria (made of peptidoglycan) have cell walls and cell membranes. Humans are the exception.

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12
Q

Lipids: Definition, function, structure

A

Largely hydrophobic (non polar) and include biologically important lipids such as fats, phospholipids and steroids. Functions as structure (phospholipids in cell membranes), long term energy storage (fats), hormones (steroids)

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13
Q

Phospholipids

A

Are both hydrophobic in the non polar tails and hydrophilic in the polar heads. They are significant since they form the phospholipid bilayer and prevent most “stuff” from leaking across itself.

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14
Q

Proteins: Definition, structure and function

A

They are polymers of amino acids comprised of an amino group, a side chain, and a carboxylic acid group. Functions include structural support, storage, transport, cellular communications, movement

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15
Q

Nucleic acids

A

Polymers of nucleotides. Held together by hydrogen bonds! The structure is a phosphate group, sugar group, and a nitrogenous base (A, T, C, G). There are 2 types: DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid which encodes the amino acid sequence of proteins, and RNA or ribonucleic acid which builds proteins. The double helix backbone is the sugar and phosphate groups, and the nitrogenous bases are the rungs.

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16
Q

The names of the four nitrogenous bases

A

A-adenine, T-Thymine, C-cytosine, G-guanine. A and T can only pair together and C and G can only pair together.

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17
Q

Prokaryotic cell structure

A

Cell wall
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm (aqueous interior of water etc)
Ribosomes (protein builders and technically not organelles since they aren’t membrane bound)
DNA (floating nucleotides)

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18
Q

Cell membrane

A

Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that forms the boundary of cell walls. What functions do those proteins perform? Transport proteins, embedded with the tail outside, example is glucose

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19
Q

Ribosomes

A

Complexes of RNA and protein that carry out protein synthesis

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20
Q

Special features of plant cells

A

Chloroplasts
Water vacuole
Cellulose cell wall

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21
Q

What small non polar molecules freely cross the membrane with simple diffusion?

A

O2 and CO2, since they are both water soluble

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22
Q

Semipermeable membrane

A

A membrane that allows certain molecules or ions to pass through while restricting the movement of others. The selective permeability is dependent on size, charge, and solubility of the molecules or ions. Larger molecules, polar molecules (glucose), and charged ions may be restricted.

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23
Q

Diffusion

A

The movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

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24
Q

Simple diffusion

A

Small, uncharged molecules cross the phospholipid bilayer from the side with the lower concentration without transport membrane proteins

25
Q

Transport protein

A

They sit in the membrane bilayer with one end outside the cell and the other inside. They act as a channel, carrier, or pump to provide passage for large or hydrophilic molecules to cross the membrane

26
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Large or hydrophilic molecules cross the membrane from the side with the higher concentration to the side with the lower concentration with the help of a membrane protein specific to the molecule needing transport. Requires no energy because the substance is moving from high to low. Moving down a concentration gradient.

27
Q

Active transport

A

An energy requiring process by which solutes (large or hydrophilic molecules) cross the cell membrane by being pumped from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration, moving against concentration gradient means energy is needed.

28
Q

Osmosis

A

The diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane down its concentration gradient. Water follows solutes.

29
Q

Types of solutions in osmosis

A

Isotonic: solute concentration same as inside cell
Hypertonic: solute concentration higher than that in the cell
Hypotonic: solute concentration lower than the one in the cell

30
Q

Peptidoglycan

A

Structural molecule of bacterial cell walls causing them to be rigid. Penicillin inhibits synthesis of this.

31
Q

Difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells’ ribosomes

A

Prokaryotic are much smaller, and are free floating in the cytoplasm. In eukaryotic cells, they are in the rough ER and the cytoplasm, and bacterial prokaryotic ribosomes are vulnerable to antibiotics bc of peptidoglycan

32
Q

What are shared between animal and plant cells (both eukaryotic)

A

Nucleus
Endoplasmic reticulum
Ribosomes
Mitochondria
Lysosome
Golgi

33
Q

Nucleus function definition

A

Enclosed the DNA of the cell. Surrounded by the nuclear envelope which is a double membrane of two phospholipid lipid bilayers (folded over)

34
Q

Mitochondria

A

Help extract energy from food and convert it into ATP through cellular respiration. Recall that ATP is the product of CR and CO2 is the waste product! They have two membranes surrounding them (inner is highly folded). Inner membrane has ribosomes.

35
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

Vast network of membrane covered pipes serving as a membrane factory critical for producing new proteins and lipids. Rough ER is rough bc it has ribosomes studded, builds proteins. Smooth ER is responsible for membrane lipid production. Products of the ER are shipped in transport vesicles to Golgi along the cytoskeleton’s microtubules.

36
Q

Golgi

A

Processes and packages proteins produced in the ER. Processed molecules are packaged in transport vesicles and taken to final destinations outside cell (to membrane) or lysosome to be recycled. “Receives, modifies, and sorts proteins to be transported to destination.

37
Q

Lysosomes

A

So called recycle bin containing hydrolysis enzymes to degrade food particles (or damaged organelles)

38
Q

The story of a protein’s genesis from ER to cell membrane or lysosomes (the endomembrane system)

A

1 the nucleus’s DNA provides instructions to the rough ER for protein production
2 proteins are made in the rough ER and are packaged into transport vesicles for transport to the Golgi.
3 proteins are received and modified by the Golgi and packaged into vesicles for transport to the site of protein function either taken to cell membrane and secreted by exocytosis or transported to locations within the cell like the lysosome

39
Q

Secretory protein

A

Insulin is an example, so are antibodies. These are types of proteins that are made and processed by the cell for secretion outside the cell

40
Q

Hydrolytic enzyme

A

Type of enzyme that catalyzes hydrolysis of specific chemical bonds in molecules by breaking them down with water. They are produced through the endomembrane system and then are shipped from Golgi to lysosomes to break down waste materials

41
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Plant and algae have these. Comprised of internally stacked membranes (thylakoids, solar panels absorbing light to power photosynthesis using green chlorophyll) surrounded by two membranes. Sites of photosynthesis. Plants have mitochondria! Own ribosomes and circular DNA. Provides them food so they don’t have to rely entirely on external sources of energy.

42
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Network of protein fibers that carry out a variety of functions, including cell support, cell movement, and movement of structures within cells.
Three types: microtubules (biggest), intermediate filaments, and microfilaments (smallest)

43
Q

Endosymbiotic Theory

A

Mitochondria and chloroplasts are organelles that evolved from prokaryotic cells that were engulfed by a larger cell through endocytosis.
Evidence includes:
Circular chromosomes
Ribosomes
How they divide
The lipids in their membranes

44
Q

Cyanobacteria

A

The bacteria that can do photosynthesis, but do not have chloroplasts because they are prokaryotes, which don’t have organelles. They act as their own chloroplasts.

45
Q

DNA

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid
-it is hereditary and passed parents to offspring
-common to all living organisms
-encodes all the proteins needed in any given cell type
Found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Some is found in mitochondrial DNA in ribosomes.

46
Q

Chromosome

A

Consists of a single DNA molecule wrapped around proteins. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes and 46 individual. One chromosome from each pair is inherited from the bio mother and bio father. XX is female, XY is male.

47
Q

Nucleotides

A

The building block of DNA. Made of sugar, phosphate, and a nitrogenous base.

48
Q

Nucleotides sequences

A

Specific sequence of nucleotides along a strand of DNA is unique to each individual other than identical twins. Cells make an identical copy of DNA through DNA replication.

49
Q

What holds DNA together?

A

Hydrogen bonds. Usually weak, but lots are strong.

50
Q

What cells have only 1/2 DNA?

A

Sperm and eggs

51
Q

What are the three DNA replication enzymes?

A
  • helicase (catalyzing enzyme that breaks hydrogen bond and unzips the helix)
    -primase (the primer that is the “zipper nub) that starts the process of zipping started by
    -DNA polymerase (adds complementary nucleotides and continues replicating down the template strand, fast) (recall the template strand and the lagging strand)
52
Q

Mutations

A

Caused by DNA polymerase making a one in a million mistake

53
Q

PCR

A

Polymerase chain reaction. A lab technique to replicate a specific DNA segment. Means DNA replication in a test tube. Ingredients:
-DNA template
-nucleotides,
- taq polymerase
-primers (20-30 bases long)

54
Q

PCR steps

A

There are only 3 steps (takes 30-32 cycles to amplify DNA segment):
-heat to 95 degrees C to separate template DNA through denaturation breaking apart hydrogen bonds
-cool down to 55-60 degrees C so the primers can stick to the DNA template (artificial replace human primase)
-raise heat to 72-75 degrees C so the raw polymerase can build off the primer and DNA template to build a complementary DNA strand.

55
Q

Gel electrophoresis

A

How you examine the DNA amplified by a PCR. Applying an electrical current to a gel loaded with DNA. The current causes charged DNA to migrate through the gel. Smaller, polar DNA molecules attract fastest toward a positively charged electrode.

56
Q

Short tandem repeats

A

Simple sequence repeat of specific sequences of DNA used to identify suspect in chapter 7

57
Q

Exocytosis

A

Process by which cells actively transport molecules out of the cell. Vesicle formation at Golgi, taken to membrane along microtubules, powered by ATP, fuses with cell membrane, and then secreted

58
Q

Endocytosis

A

Process by which cells take in molecules by engulfing them into vesicles formed from the cell membrane. Membrane forms a pocket around food, deepens and pinches off forming the vesicle, which is taken to the organelles for processing or digestion

Biology 100 (4 decks)

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