Exam 2 Flashcards
Describe how the brain begins to mature early in development.
- Brain regions learn to communicate with one another
through synaptic connections - Brain circuits mature through myelination
- Synaptic pruning: used synaptic connections
preserved, unused connections decay and disappear - At birth, brain can support basic motor reflexes
- Further brain development necessary for cognitive
development - By age 4, the brain is about 80% of the adult size
What major factors or environmental experiences can impede typical brain
development (e.g., teratogens, lack of stimulation)?
Teratogens: agents that harm the embryo or fetus (drugs, bacteria)
Lack of stimulation
* Synaptic connections strengthen as they are used
* Caregivers are a primary source of interaction
poverty is associated with environmental risk factors
Preferential-looking technique
test visual acuity in infants.
developmental psychologists observed infants’ reactions to patterns of black-and-white stripes as well as patches of gray
the researchers know the infant can distinguish between the two and finds one more interesting
Habituation technique
A way to study how infants categorize a series of objects, such as faces, based on the principle that after looking at objects that are all from the same category, babies will look for a longer time at objects from a new category.
Strange-situation test
3
study attachments
child’s reaction to when the caregiver leaves reveals attachment style
Secure: child is distress when attachment leaves and calms down/seeks comfort when the attachment comes back
insecure/avoidant: not in distress when the caregiver leaves and avoids the caregiver/attachment when they come back
insecure/Ambivalent : child is unconsolably upset when the caregiver leaves, and child both seeks and avoids comfort from the attachment
Dynamic systems theory
- Development is a self-organizing process
- New, more complex behaviors and abilities emerge through
interaction between person, culture, and the environment
When participating in the strange-situation study, a child is not distressed when the caregiver leaves and ignores the caregiver when they return. Which attachment style is exhibited?
A. secure
B. insecure/ambivalent
C. insecure/avoidant
insecure/avoidant
How do the preferential looking technique and habituation technique give insights into the minds of infants?
Infants can innately nod their heads for “yes.”
Infants will cry more when shown unfamiliar objects.
Infants will look longer at objects that they perceive to be unfamiliar.
Infants can innately shake their heads for “no.”
Infants will look longer at objects that they perceive to be unfamiliar.
Outline Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.
Schemes: assimilation and accommodation
4 stages
* Sensorimotor (birth-2): present-focused, reflexive, object permanence develops
- Preoperational (2-7 years): symboli representation of objects, first-person perspective,
struggle with law of conservation of quantity - Concrete operational (7-12 years): perform mental manipulation of concrete objects,
understand conservation of quantity, some awareness of others’ views - Formal Operational (12+): abstract thought, critical thinking and applying logic
What is “theory of mind”?
ability to understand that other people have mental states that will influence their behavior.
Theory of mind typically develops by 15 months and is related to development of the frontal lobes.
Outline and describe Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral reasoning.
What are the major criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory?
3 levels
Preconventional: priority on self-interest and
satisfaction with outcome
Conventional: rule-following, approval-seeking
Postconventional: consideration of abstract
principles and pursuit of the greater good
Theories of moral reasoning have been criticized for their gender and culture bias and for ignoring emotional aspects of moral decisions.
what is Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development.
proposed a theory of human development that emphasized age-related, culture-neutral psychosocial challenges and their effects on social functioning across the life span.
What major identities further develop or solidify across adolescence?
Crisis:
Identity versus role confusion
Resolution: By exploring different social roles, adolescents develop a sense of identity.
- Physical appearance and transforming self-image
- More sophisticated cognitive skills à introspection
- More societal pressure to prepare for the future à exploration of boundaries
What are major life transitions that may occur in adulthood, and how do they impact happiness later in life?
Transitions:
-seeking interpersonal connections/marriage
-parenthood
-creating meanings
-physical changes:
*20 – 40 y/o: decline in muscle mass, bone density, eyesight, hearing
* Better shape during early adulthood à fewer significant declines with ag
What factors help in the maintenance of mental skills as individuals age?
Cognitive changes
-Frontal lobes (working memory, other cognitive skills) tend to shrink with age
-Slowing of mental processing speed
-memory slows
intelligence changes
* Fluid intelligence tends to peak in early adulthood, decline steadily as we age.
* Crystallized intelligence usually increases throughout life
what are the social attributions related to the adult transition of marriage
Overall associated with more happiness and joy, less
mental illnesses
* Unhappily married people are at greater risk for
poor health, death
* Most satisfied married people have sufficient
economic resources, share decision making, and
view marriage as a lifelong commitment
what is the happiness level associated with parenthood
it does not guarantee happiness
can bring happiness if both parent share the burden of raising the children equally
fluid intelligence
short term memory
crystalized intelligence
long term memory
secondary emotions
blends of primary emotions, feelings
about emotions, or culturally- specific emotions
- remorse
- guilt
- shame
- love
- pride
- contentment
- jealousy
primary emotions
innate, adaptive, universal
* anger
* fear
* sadness
* disgust
* happiness
* surprise
* contempt
James-Lange
people perceive patterns of
bodily responses, and as a result then feel an emotion
Cannon-Bard
information about emotional
stimuli is sent to the cortex and the body at the same time, resulting in emotional experience and bodily reactions
* We experience 2 things at roughly the same time: emotion and physical
reaction
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor
a label applied to
physiological arousal results in the experience of an emotion
- When we are aroused, we search for the source of arousal
- Misattribution of arousal: when we misidentify the source of arousal
Identify and describe strategies that can successfully and unsuccessfully regulate emotions?
Unsuccessful strategies include suppression and rumination.
Successful strategies include changing the meaning of events, mental distancing, finding humor, refocusing attention, and distraction.
What factors impact how we convey and perceive emotions?
Eyes and mouth important for conveying emotion
Context can alter how we perceive emotion
“display rules”
tell us which emotions are suitable
to given situations
“ideal affect”
types of emotions that cultures value
and encourage people to display
motivation
a process that energizes, guides, and maintains behavior toward a goal
1. Energizing: Activate behavior
2. Directive: Guide behavior
3. Persistence: Maintain behavior
3. Differ in strength
drives
motivate us to fulfill (biological) needs
* A psychological state of arousal that compels an organism to satisfy a need
* Drive increase in proportion to the amount of deprivation
* Habit à formed when a behavior consistently reduces a drive
* We strive for homeostasis
intrinsic motivation
when we perform an activity because of the value or
pleasure associated
* Pleasure: state of enjoyment or satisfaction
extrinsic motivation
when we perform an activity to move
toward achieving external goals
- Incentives: external objects or external goals, rather than internal drives, that motivate behaviors
how to set reasonable goals
challenging and specific but not overly difficult
measurable, realistic, and time bound
personal factors to assist goal achievement
Self-regulation:
changing behavior to meet personal goals
Delayed gratification:
putting off a reward for a future time
Self efficacy: Expectation that efforts will lead to success
Achievement motivation: desire to pursue excellence
Grit: determination to achieve goals despite setbacks
three aspects of the biopsychosocial model of health
biopsychosocial model: An approach to psychological science that integrates biological factors, psychological processes, and social-contextual influences in shaping human mental life and behavior.
f biological and social factors that can affect
health and disease?
how to determine their personal risk for accidents
and illnesses?
What are some health promoting behaviors?
nutrition
exercise
no smoking
How do the social determinants of health affect the health outcomes and
behaviors of different social groups (e.g., race, immigration status,
socioeconomic status)?
Beliefs and behaviors about health are determined by the norms and conditions of our cultures and communities.
Societal factors such as how public environments are structured and how much money a country can dedicate to health care can affect health for the better or the worse
Different cultures and lifestyles also contribute to health differences. For example, the adoption of more Westernized behaviors, such as eating junk food and engaging in less physical activity, in countries like India and China has led to increases in diseases related to obesity, such as diabetes
We learn health behaviors from others
We care what people think about our health behaviors
We want to meet expectations
immigrant paradox
The pattern among immigrant communities in which foreign-born immigrants to the United States have better health than people in later generations do.
general adaptation syndrome
General adaptation syndrome: pattern of responses to stress with three stages
* Alarm: emergency reaction, prepares body to fight or flee
* Resistance: body prepares for longer, sustained defense from the stressor
* Exhaustion: various physiological and immune systems fail
How do racism and racial bias in the American healthcare system
contribute to health disparities between White and Black Americans
Differences in health outcomes, such as illness or
death rates, between groups of people
* Racial/ethnic groups
* Generation of immigration
* Socioeconomic status health gradient
“stress”
+subtypes
unpleasant response, involving anxiety
or tension, to a stressor
- Distress: stress caused by negative events
- Eustress: stress caused by positive events
allostatic load
The cumulative “wear and tear” on biological systems, including the stress, digestive, immune, cardiovascular, and hormonal systems, among others, after repeated or chronic stressful events.
How are primary and secondary appraisals connected?
Primary appraisals: decide if the stimulus is stressful, benign, or irrelevant
Secondary appraisals: evaluate response options, choose coping behaviors
What are the benefits of generating cognitive appraisals?
lowers negative emotions such as sadness and anxiety and increases positive emotions associated with well-being
