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EXAM 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is Psychology?

A

Psychological science is the study, through research, of mind, brain, and behavior.

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2
Q

What is the scope of Psychological Science?

A

psychology + science
mind/brain/behavior + study/research/critical thinking

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3
Q

What practices can you take to exercise critical thinking?

A

Critical thinking - Systematically questioning and evaluating information using well-supported evidence.

exercises - examine evidence, considered alternative reasonings, apply logic and reasoning

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4
Q

Identify and explain the common biases you can encounter.

A

-Ignoring evidence
-Seeing casual relationships that do not exist
-Accepting after-the-fact explanations
-Taking mental short cuts
-Self-severing bias

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5
Q

Explain the mind/body problem and the nature/nurture debate

A

MIND/BODY - Are mind and body separate and distinct, or is the mind simply the
physical brain’s subjective experience?
~Early scholars: The mind is entirely separate from and in control of the body.
~1500s: Leonardo da Vinci challenged dualism, link between brain and mind
~1600s: Cartesian dualism, mind and body mostly separate, though some
mental functions resulted from bodily functions
8

NATURE/NURTURE- debate on the origin of mental life
~Ancient Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato debated
the source of human psychology
~ Current conclusion: mutual influence, inseparable

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6
Q

What is the theory of dualism and how do psychologists view it today?

A

The theory of dualism is the mind and the body are two separate and distinct entities that interact with each other.

It was proposed by the philosopher Rene Descartes in the 17th century

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7
Q

What are the tenets of William James’ theory of functionalism

A

-Functionalism: An approach to psychology concerned with the adaptive purpose, or function, of mind and behavior.

-Strem of concisions: A phrase coined by William James to describe each person’s continuous series of ever-changing thoughts.

-Mind is complex and can not be broken down by its elements

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8
Q

What are the major advancements in biology studies that help
understand psychological phenomena?

A

3 major advances
-Brain imaging
-Genetics and epigenetics
-immunology and other peripheral systems

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9
Q

Name the four levels of analysis and identify Multilevel and Interdisciplinary study scope

A

Multilevel and Interdisciplinary study: Biopsychosocial + cultural model, combining levels from different field yields more insight.

4 levels:
Biological
Individual
Social
Cultural

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10
Q

What are the 3 primary goals of science?

A

Description
Prediction
Explanation

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11
Q

What are the steps to the scientific method?

A

Research Question –>Review –>
Hypothesis –>Design study –>
Conduct study –>
Analyze data–>Report results

A theory is generated based on evidence from many observations and refined based on hypothesis tests (scientific studies). The theory guides scientists in casting one or more testable hypotheses. Scientists then conduct research to test the hypotheses. Sound research produces findings that will prompt scientists to reevaluate and adjust the theory. A good theory evolves over time, and the result is an increasingly accurate model of some phenomenon.

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12
Q

What is the difference between theories, hypotheses, and research?

A

Theories - explanation based on observation
Hypothesis - prediction based on the theory
Research - Test of the hypothesis. This test yields data to support or disprove theory

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13
Q

What are the differences between descriptive studies, correlational
studies, and experiments?

A

Descriptive: The use of observation to
provide an objective and
systematic account of a
phenomenon

Correlational: The use of description and
prediction to understand
how naturally existing
variables interact

Experimental: The use of manipulation and
measurement of variables to
establish cause and effect

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14
Q

What are the goals, pros and cons of the three overarching types of research?

A

Descriptive
PROS: inexpensive, gather quick data
CONS: can establish casual relations between variables

Correlation
PROS: ethical option for studying some variables
CONS: correlation does not mean causation

Experimental
PROS: can be more controlled
CONS: designed to promote desired outcome

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15
Q

What three characteristics reflect the quality of data?
a. Why are these important?

A

Data should be reliable, valid, accurate
Important: errors in research can lead to wrong conclusions

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16
Q

What is the difference between random sampling and random
assignment?

What purpose does each serve in research?

A

random sampling- SELECTING participants to be in an experiment
random assignment- PLACING participants in conditions

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17
Q

Compare and contrast descriptive and inferential statistics.

A

Descriptive statistics: provide data summary, share results (mean, median, mode, standard deviation)

Inferential statistics: set of procedures used to make judgments about whether
differences actually exist between sets of numbers

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18
Q

Describe the questionable research practices discussed in class

A

Small samples:

HARKing: hypothesizing after the results are known

P-hacking: running many statistical analyses until one
is significant (p-value less than .05)

Underreporting null effects:choosing not to publish
(or being unable to publish) non-significant results

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19
Q

What is Open Science?

A

Open science is the movement to make scientific research accessible to all levels of society, amateur or professional.

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20
Q

Describe the functions of the Central nervous system

A

brain and spinal cord

is the mastermind of the body, controlling thoughts, emotions, movements, and senses.

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21
Q

Describe the functions of the Peripheral nervous system

A

consists of all the other nerve cells in the rest of the body and includes the somatic and autonomic nervous system

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22
Q

Describe the functions of the Somatic system

A

made up of neurons that connects brain and spinal cord to muscles and joints

Sends signals d=from brain and spinal cord to muscles and joints

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23
Q

Describe the functions of the Autonomic system

A

Glands and internal organs communicate with brain and spinal cord

messages from the brain to the organs -> Sympathetic nervous system & parasympathetic nervous system

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24
Q

Describe the functions of the Sympathetic division

A

sub-division of Autonomic system when the brain sends signals to the glands and responds to emergency situations by mobilizing and controlling the energy necessary to cope with the situation.

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25
Q

Describe the functions of the Parasympathetic division

A

sub-division of Autonomic system when the brain sends signals to the glands and controls the non immediate/ danger related body functions, “rest and digestion”

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26
Q

What are neurons?

What are the different types of neurons and their
functions?

A

Neurons: basic unit of a neuron system, communicate with other neurons via chemical signals

Types
Sensory (afferent): detect information from physical
world and pass that information to brain

  • Somatosensory nerves provide information
    from the skin and muscles.
  • Motor (efferent): direct muscles to contract or relax
  • Interneurons: communicate between sensory and
    motor neurons
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27
Q

How are neurons structured?
Draw it and definitions

A

Dendrites: are short, branchlike appendages that detect chemical signals from neighboring neurons

cell body: the information received via the dendrites from thousands of other neurons is collected and integrated.

Axon: Once the incoming information from many other neurons has been integrated in the cell body, electrical impulses are transmitted along a long, narrow outgrowth

Myelin sheath: A fatty material, made up of glial cells, that insulates some axons to allow for faster movement of electrical impulses along the axon.

Node of Ranvier: Small gaps of exposed axon between the segments of myelin sheath, where action potentials take place.

Terminal Buttons: At the end of each axon are knoblike structures

Synapse: The site where chemical communication occurs between neurons

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28
Q

How do neurons communicate with each other?

Describe the electrical
and chemical processes that occur in neural communication.

A

Neurons transmit information through electrical and chemical signals in the nervous system

STEPS:
1) receives signals from other neurons through its dendrites
2) signal triggers action potential, action potential travels along the axon
3) action potential reaches the end of the axon, terminal button. Then, release of neurotransmitters, chemical messengers, into the synaptic cleft,
4)neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the dendrites of the next neuron

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29
Q

How do agonists and antagonists influence the action of
neurotransmitters?

A

Agonists and antagonists are substances that affect the activity of neurotransmitters by binding to their receptors on the postsynaptic cell. Agonists increase the effect of a neurotransmitter, while antagonists decrease or block it.

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30
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Cerebral cortex

A

Cerebral cortex: the outer layer of brain tissue, which forms the convoluted
surface of the brain; the site of all thoughts, perceptions, and complex
behaviors

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31
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Frontal lobe

A

Regions of the cerebral cortex—at the front of the brain—important for movement and higher-level psychological processes associated with the prefrontal cortex

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32
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Prefrontal cortex

A

located in the frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality.

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33
Q

Describe the structure and function of the primary motor cortex

A

located in the frontal lobe

The primary motor cortex includes neurons that project directly to the spinal cord to move the body’s muscles

For example, the left hemisphere controls the right arm, whereas the right hemisphere controls the left arm

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34
Q

Describe the structure and function of the parietal lobe

A

Located in cerebral hemispheres

The left hemisphere receives touch information from the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere receives touch information from the left side of the body.

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35
Q

Describe the structure and function of the primary somatosensory cortex

A

a strip in the front part of the lobe that runs along the central fissure from the top of the brain down the sides

processing stomatic sensations

where the parietal lobe touch information gets sent

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36
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Temporal lobe

A

hold the primary auditory cortex, the brain region responsible for hearing.

At the intersection of the temporal and occipital lobes is the fusiform face area.

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37
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Primary auditory cortex

A

In Temporal cortex

hold the primary auditory cortex, the brain region responsible for hearing.

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38
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Occipital lobe

A

At the intersection of the temporal and occipital lobes is the fusiform face area.

visualcortexes how we see and interprite visuals

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39
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Primary visual cortex

A

the part of the brain that processes visual information from the eyes

in the occupational lobe

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40
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Insula

A

is a part of the cerebral cortex

control taste, pain, and empathy (insula); relay of sensory information (the thalamus); vital functions (the hypothalamus); memories (the hippocampus); threat and fear (the amygdala); and the planning and production of movement and reward circuitry (the basal ganglia).

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41
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Subcortical regions

A

In Insula
sensory information (the thalamus)

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42
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Thalamus

A

In insula
relay of sensory information (the thalamus)

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43
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Hypothalamus

A

In Insula

vital functions (the hypothalamus)

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44
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Hippocampus

A

In Insula
memories (the hippocampus)

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45
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Amygdala

A

In insula

threat and fear (the amygdala)

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46
Q

Describe the structure and function of the Basal ganglia

A

In insula
the planning and production of movement and reward circuitry (the basal ganglia).

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47
Q

what is brain plasticity?

A

quality of the brain, enables change when exposed to
experience or injury
most plasticity when we are babies

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48
Q

In what ways do the nervous system and endocrine system interact with one another?

A

Endocrine glands produce and release chemical substancesto communicate to the nervous system

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49
Q

Define consciousness

A

One’s moment-to-moment subjective experience of the world.

qualities:
*Internal and subjective
* Involves sensory input
* Associated with brain activity
* Can be manipulated, contain
errors
* Varies from person to person
* Limited, selective

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50
Q

How are consciousness and attention related?

A
  • go hand and hand
    *Attention selects what enters your limited consciousness
  • What are you focusing on
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51
Q

What is the difference between unconscious and automatic processing?

A

Automatic processing refers to cognitive activities that are relatively fast and require few cognitive resources.

unconscious processes are executed automatically, in response to certain stimulus conditions. (you continue to breath when you are sleeping)

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52
Q

What are some effects of meditation on consciousness?

A

Concentrative or
Mindfulness
* Health benefits:
* Improved blood
pressure, cholesterol
level in heart patients
* Less anxiety, more brain
activity consistent with
+ emotional state after
8 week meditation
course
* long term practice may change brain

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53
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Hyperfocus?

A

highly focused attention that lasts a long time. You concentrate on something so hard that you lose track of everything else going on around you

Bad:hyperfocus is thought to result from abnormally low levels of dopamine, a neurotransmitter that is particularly active in the brain’s frontal lobes, unmanagement , hard to “shift gears

Good: you can consentrate get something done

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54
Q

what is a flow state?

A

Losing yourself in an
activity
* Physical exertion
* Spiritual transcendence
* Flow
* Flow is absorbing and
satisfying
* “Just right” challenge

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55
Q

IS Hypnosis real?

A

yes

56
Q

What qualities could make hypnosis more effective?
What is a research supported application of hypnosis?

A

Hypnosis: A social interaction during which a person, responding to suggestions, experiences changes in memory, perception, and/or voluntary action.

Qualities to make hypnosis more effective:
being focused, imaginative, easily absorbed, and willing to participate.

Theories:
*sociocognitive theory of hypnosis, hypnotized people behave as they expect hypnotized people to behave
* neodissociation theory of hypnosis acknowledges the importance of social context to hypnosis, but it views the hypnotic state as an altered state

57
Q

Are there stages of sleep, describe them.

A

1~ REM “Paradoxical sleep”, dreaming- theta waves
2 ~ sleep spindles, K-complex
slow wave sleep ~ Delt waves

58
Q

What are the functions of sleep according to the various sleep theories?

A

Functions: restoration, avoiding danger at certain times of the day, and facilitation of learning.

Theories
*Restoration: This theory suggests that sleep is necessary for repairing and restoring the physiological and mental functions that are depleted during wakefulness.

  • circadian rhythm theory: sleep has evolved to keep animals quiet and inactive during times of the day when there is the greatest danger, usually when it is dark.

*facilitation of learning: correlation between strong sleep and performance. Both slow-wave sleep and REM sleep appear to be important for learning to take place.

59
Q

What are the different ways that drugs affect people psychologically and
neurochemically?
1.Stimulants
2. Depressants
3. Opioids/narcotics
4. Hallucinogens
5. Psychedelics

A

1.Stimulants ~ Increase behavioral and mental activity, Dopamine
2. Depressants ~ Decrease behavioral and mental activity, GABA
3. Opioids/narcotics ~ Reduce the experience of pain, bring pleasure, Endorphins
4. Hallucinogens/Psychedelics ~ Alter thoughts or perceptions, serotonin

60
Q

How Do We Sense and Perceive the World Around Us?

A

STEPS
1- stimulus appears
2- sensory receptors detect the stimulus
3- sensory coding: sensory is transduced
4 - perception: is the brain’s further processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory information. Perception results in our conscious experience of the world.

61
Q

How do sensation and perception differ?

A

Sensation and perception are integrated into experience

Sensation: The detection of physical stimuli and the transmission of this information to the brain.
Perception: The processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals in the brain.

62
Q

What is transduction?

A

the translation of physical stimuli received by sensory receptors into neural signals that the brain can interpret

63
Q

Discuss the concept of “top-down” and “bottom-up” processing in the
context of perception.

A

bottom-up processing: Perception based on the physical features of the stimulus.

top-down processing: The interpretation of sensory information based on knowledge, expectations, and past experiences.

64
Q

Explain the two types of sensory thresholds.

A

Absolute threshold: minimum amount of stimulation to experience a
sensation half of the time

  • Difference threshold: minimum amount of change required to detect
    a difference between two stimuli
  • Weber’s law: just noticeable difference based on proportion of the original
    stimulus rather than on a fixed amount of difference
    10
65
Q

What are the four possible outcomes in a signal detection task, and what
do they mean?

A

Signal detection theory: detection of a stimulus requires a judgment—it is not an all-or-nothing process
* Response bias: participant’s tendency to report or not report detecting the signal in an
ambiguous trial
* Relative trade-off of more false alarms versus more misses depends upon situation
* When is it better to not detect something that IS there vs. detect something that ISN’T there?

“Yes, it’s there” -> stimulus is present or stimulus is not present
“No, it’s nothing” -> stimulus is present or stimulus is not present

66
Q

Describe the journey of light through the eye to the brain

A

1 Physical stimulus: light waves reflect through the cornea and ente3r the eye through the pupil. the lens focuses the light on the retina

2 Sensation: sensory receptors in the retina, called rods and cones, detect the light waves

3 Transduction: rods and cones convert the light into signals. Signals are processed by ganglion cells, which generate action potential

4 Perception: signals from each visual field are processed on one side of the retina. travel along the optic nerve through the thalamus and are processed in visual cortex

67
Q

hearing pathway

A

Sound waves → outer ear → eardrum (middle ear, where the hammer, anvil, and stirrup vibrate) → oval window (cochlea, in the inner ear) → basilar membrane → hair cells (primary receptors) → auditory nerve → thalamus → auditory cortex Noise meter

68
Q

Explain the concept of sound waves.

A

Sound wave: pattern of changes in air
pressure during a period of time
* Amplitude and volume

69
Q

How do we perceive pitch and loudness?

A

emporal coding: low frequency sounds, firing rates
of cochlear hairs = frequency of sound wave
* Place coding: at higher frequencies, sound encoded
by location of cochlear hair along basilar membrane

70
Q

Discuss the role of the auditory nerve in transmitting auditory information from the cochlea to the brain, and the specific brain regions
involved in auditory processing.

A

the auditory nerve carries the neural signal first to the thalamus and then to the primary auditory cortex(the part of the temporal lobe that processes auditory information in humans and many other vertebrates) which processes perception of the sound.

71
Q

Describe the anatomical structures involved in the sense of taste,
including taste buds and taste receptors.

How do they play a role in taste
perception?

A

taste buds: Sensory organs in the mouth that contain the receptors for taste.

taste receptors: in taste buds on tongue/mouth, which transmit stimuli to the cranial nerve through the thalamus

72
Q

Explain the role of olfactory receptors in detecting different odors and
how they send signals to the brain.

A

smell steps
1) stimuli: when you smell something, odorants pass into your nose and nasal cavity

2)Olfactory receptors, in the olfactory epithelium, transmit the signal to the olfactory bulb, which transmitters

3)along the olfactory nerve to areas of the cortex and amygdala

73
Q

What brain regions are involved in olfactory perception?

A

Information about whether a smell is pleasant or unpleasant is processed in the brain’s prefrontal cortex, which is also involved with emotions and memory

74
Q

How does the brain process tactile information, and what are the key
brain regions involved in touch perception?

A

tactile stimulation: Anything that makes contact with our skin provides

Process: The haptic receptors for both temperature and pressure are sensory neurons that reach to the skin’s outer layer. Their long axons enter the central nervous system by way of spinal or cranial nerves.

75
Q

Describe the two kinds of nerve fibers involved in pain
What are their main differences (in function and in their
characteristics)?

A

2 kinds of nerve fibers translate pain:

  • fast fibers for sharp, immediate pain;
    activated by strong physical pressure
    and temperature extremes
  • slow fibers for chronic, dull, steady pain;
    activated by chemical changes in tissue
    when skin is damaged
    28
76
Q

What is the gate control theory of pain, and how does it explain the
modulation of pain signals in the spinal cord?

A

gate control theory of pain: we experience pain when pain receptors are activated and a neural “gate” in the spinal cord allows the signals through to the brain

77
Q

CH 6 researchers described in class

A

Early 1900s - Ivan Pavlov studies reflexes
* Salivation in response bowl, person who provides food is learned
* Research of classic (Pavlovian) conditioning

  • 1910s/20s
  • Edward Thorndike and the law of effect
  • John Watson, Rosalie Rayner, and Mary Cover Jones apply
    principles of conditioning to develop, resolve phobias
  • Watson published Behaviorism

Mid 1900s - B. F. Skinner sees behaviors as instrumental
* Studied animal behavior in lab setting using “operant chamber”

  • 1960s - Social learning
  • Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll studies
  • Lev Vygotsky and sociocultural theory of cognitive development
    through interactions
78
Q

Non-associative Learning

A

learning to adjust responses to reoccurring stimuli
Habituation and Sensitization

79
Q

By what processes does non-associative learning occur?

A

occurs when you gain new information after repeated exposure to a single stimulus or event.

habitution
senseitization

80
Q

What is the significance of Habituation?

A

Habituation leads to a decrease in a behavioral response after repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Habituation is unlike sensory adaptation in that you can still perceive the stimuli. You just do not respond to them because you have learned that they are not important.

Habituation decreases a behavioral response,

81
Q

what is significant about Sensitization?

A

Sensitization leads to an increase in a behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus.

sensitization increases a behavioral response.

82
Q

what is associative learning

A

Learning the relationship between 2 stimuli

Classical conditioning & Operant conditioning

83
Q

what does it mean to learn by association?

A

To learn by association means to form connections between new information and existing knowledge. For example, if you want to remember that the capital of France is Paris, you might associate it with the Eiffel Tower, which is a famous landmark in Paris. Learning by association can help you recall information more easily and effectively.

84
Q

define Acquistion

A

acquisition
The gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.

85
Q

define extinction

A

extinction
A process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus.

86
Q

define spontaneous recovery

A

spontaneous recovery
When a previously extinguished conditioned response reemerges after the presentation of the conditioned stimulus.

87
Q

define generalization

A

stimulus generalization-
Learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response.

88
Q

define discrimination

A

stimulus discrimination
A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

89
Q

what are the principles of classical conditioning?

A

when we learn that a stimulus predicts another stimulus

A type of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response.

A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place.
A response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned.

90
Q

who is the founder of classical conditioning and how did he “discover” it?

A

The founder of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. His groundbreaking work in this field revolutionized our understanding of learning and behavior. An observational of salivation: the digestive system of a dog

91
Q

Define Conditioned stimuli

A

conditioned stimulus (CS)
A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place.

92
Q

define Unconditioned stimuli

A

unconditioned stimulus (US)
A stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning.

93
Q

define conditioned response

A

conditioned response (CR)
A response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned.

94
Q

define unconditioned response

A

unconditioned response (UR)
A response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex.

95
Q

What is second order conditioning?

A

. Second-order conditioning is a form of learning in which a stimulus that was previously neutral becomes associated with another stimulus that already produces a conditioned response.

96
Q

What is the Rescorla-Wagner model?

A

The Rescorla-Wagner model is a mathematical model of classical conditioning, which explains how the strength of the association between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) changes over time.

97
Q

What is the role of prediction?

A

Prediction error: the difference between the

expected and actual outcomes
* A positive prediction error strengthens the association
between the CS and the US.
* A negative prediction error weakens the association
between the CS and the US.
19

98
Q

What makes operant conditioning different from classical
conditioning?

A

classical conditioning: association of stimulus and an involuntary response

Operant conditioning: association of voluntary action and consequence

99
Q

What are the types of stimuli used to change behavior in
operant conditioning?

A

reinforcer
A stimulus that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated.

punishment
A stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.

100
Q

what types of stimuli increase behavior, and why?

A

positive and negative reinforcement

101
Q

what types of stimuli decrease behavior, and why?

A

positives and negative punishment

102
Q

what is the difference between a negative and positive stimuli?

A

Positive means something is added. Negative means something is removed.

103
Q

What is the role of value and timing in operant
conditioning?

A

Operant conditioning: A learning process where an action’s consequences determine how likely it is to be repeated in the future

The longer the delay between the action and its consequence, the worse the learning

104
Q

Define the schedules of reinforcement.

A

*continuous reinforcement
A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced each time it occurs.

*partial reinforcement
A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced intermittently.

*partial-reinforcement extinction effect
The greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement.

105
Q

How can learning principles apply to parenting and
addiction?

A

Parenting
Use of punishment
* Most likely to be effective IF reasonable,
unpleasant, and applied immediately
* Issue of failure to offset reinforcement for
undesired behavior
* More support for grounding and time outs,
compared to physical punishment (discouraged!)
* Use of rewards
* + reinforcement most effective for increasing
desired behaviors
* Can encourage bonding

Addiction
Classical conditioning also plays an important role in
drug addiction.
* Environmental cues associated with drugs can
induce cravings
* Unsatisfied cravings could lead to withdrawal
* Drug cues à activation of prefrontal cortex and
regions of the limbic system, expectation that drug
high will follow
* Siegel (2006) believed that exposing addicts to drug cues
was an important part of treating addiction

106
Q

What is the role of dopamine in learning from
rewards?

A

Dopamine release sets the value of a rewarding unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning or a rewarding reinforcer in operant conditioning.

107
Q

What makes social learning different from both associative and
non-associative learning?

A

Social learning is a powerful adaptive tool for humans

Humans do not need to personally experience a stimulus or event to learn that it is good or bad or should be approached or avoided.

108
Q

What is the difference between observational learning and instructional
learning?

A

Observational learning: models
Vicarious learning

Instructional:
*Unique to humans
* Explain link between action and consequence
* Developmentally appropriate
* Scaffolding
* Zones of proximal development

109
Q

What is modeling?
How does it help in the learning process?

A

imitating behaviors

110
Q

What is vicarious learning?
How and why does it work?

A

Seeing the consequences (rewards,
punishments) of an action by
watching other

111
Q

What is memory?

A

Memory is the ability to store and retrieve information.

112
Q

define explicit memory

A

explicit memory
Memory that is consciously retrieved.

ex.names and locations of different countries on a map, or family members birthdays

113
Q

define episodic

A

explicit memory

Episodic memory consists of a person’s memory of past experiences that can be identified as occurring at a time and place.

114
Q

define semantic

A

Under Explicit memory
Semantic memory is knowledge of concepts, categories, and facts independent of personal experience

115
Q

define Implicit memory

A

implicit memory
Memory that is expressed through responses, actions, or reactions.

116
Q

define procedural

A

Implicit
procedural memory
A type of implicit memory that involves skills and habits.

117
Q

What regions of the brain support our memory systems?

A

Medial temporal lobes: involved in formation of
both episodic and semantic memories

  • Hippocampus: necessary for forming new episodic
    memories but not for retrieving older episodic
    memories
  • Long-term storage of episodic memories involves
    brain regions engaged in perception, processing,
    and analysis of learned material
  • Hippocampus helps form links between
    different storage sites, directs the gradual
    strengthening of connections
118
Q

What are the three stages of memory processing?

A

Encoding: Processing information so that it can be stored
* Storage: Retention of encoded representations over time
* Retrieval: Act of recalling stored information when needed

119
Q

In what ways do the following affect memory encoding and recall?
1. Schemas
2. Chunking
3. Mnemonics
4. Priming
5. Serial position effect (primacy effect, recency effect

A
  1. Schemas - Cognitive structures in long-term memory that help us perceive, organize, and understand information.
  2. Chunking - Organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember.
  3. Mnemonics - Learning aids or strategies that improve recall through the use of retrieval cues.
  4. Priming - A facilitation in the response to a stimulus due to recent experience with that stimulus or a related stimulus.
  5. Serial position effect (primacy effect, recency effect)- The finding that the ability to recall items from a list depends on the order of presentation, such that items presented early or late in the list are remembered better than those in the middle.
120
Q

How are the following types of memory different from one another?
1. Sensory memory
2. Short-term or working memory
3. Long-term memory

A
  1. Sensory memory - A memory system that very briefly stores sensory information in close to its original sensory form.
  2. Short-term or working memory -
    A limited-capacity cognitive system that temporarily stores and manipulates information for current use.
  3. Long-term memory - The storage of information that lasts from minutes to forever.
121
Q

What is a retrieval cue?

A

Any stimulus that promotes memory recall.

122
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle, and how does it relate to
context- and state-dependent memory?

A

encoding specificity principle: The idea that any stimulus that is encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory of the experience.

123
Q

How do retrieval cues contribute to both prospective memory and retrieval-induced forgetting?

A

prospective memory- Remembering to do something at some future time.

retrieval-induced forgetting- Impairment of the ability to recall an item in the future after retrieving a related item from long-term memory.

retrieval cues could act as reminders

124
Q

Describe common memory mistakes and challenges:
1. Forgetting
2. Persistence
3. Memory bias
4. Source misattribution
5. Suggestibility

A
  1. Forgetting - memory temporally or permanently gone
  2. Persistence - The continual recurrence of unwanted memories
  3. Memory bias - The changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs or attitudes.
  4. Source misattribution - Memory distortion that occurs when people misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory.
  5. Suggestibility - The development of biased memories from misleading information
125
Q

Identify and describe the two types of mental representations involved in
thinking. Identify examples for each.

A

Analogic representations – display physical characteristics of concept.For instance, “A is to B as C is to D” is an analogy because in the same way that A comes right before B in the alphabet, C comes right before D.

  • Symbolic representations – abstract, do not correspond to physical traits. For example, the word violin stands for a musical instrument (FIGURE 8.1b). There are no correspondences between what a violin looks like, what it sounds like, and the letters or sounds that make up the word violin
126
Q

Compare and contrast each of the following:
i. Prototype model
ii. Exemplar model
iii. Schemas
iv. Scripts
v. Stereotypes

A

i. Prototype model - A way of thinking about concepts: Within each category, there is a best example—a prototype—for that category

ii. Exemplar model - A way of thinking about concepts: All members of a category are examples (exemplars); together they form the concept and determine category membership.

iii. Schemas - Rely on generalizations about concepts and categories

iv. Scripts - A schema that directs behavior over time within a situation

v. Stereotypes - Cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups.

127
Q

Distinguish between “decision making” and “problem solving”

A

“decision making” A cognitive process that results in the selection of a course of action or belief from several options.

“problem solving” Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal.

128
Q

Identify and describe the different types of heuristics.

A

*Shortcuts that reduce cognitive load of decision making
* Types:
* Relative comparisons
* Anchoring: referring to a reference point that is the first piece of information or
information that comes most quickly to mind
* Framing: being influenced by the relative emphasis on potential losses or potential
gains
* Availability heuristic: deciding something based on the answer that most
easily comes to mind
* Representativeness heuristic: associating a person/object in a category if
they are like the category prototype

129
Q

How can the following inform, or bias, decision making?
i. Integral emotions
ii. Incidental emotions
iii. Affective states

A

i. Integral emotions- One way emotion can influence decisions is by providing an internal signal about the value of different choice options. If you are deciding between going to a nightclub or a poetry reading, there are many factors you could consider.

ii. Incidental emotions- influence of incidental affective states on decision making was found with the endowment effect. their incidental feelings had less influence over their judgments.

iii. Affective states - affective states that are completely unrelated to choices can also bias decisions. decision making was found with the endowment effect. The endowment effect is the tendency to value things we own more than we would pay to buy them

130
Q

what is g factor (general ability)

A

Ability to perform high-level mental processes
* Average score across various domains reflects overall intelligence
* Variation in specific skills (s) expected (Spearman)
* g is comprised of fluid and crystallized intelligence (Cattell)
* Fluid: ability to process information, understand relationships, think logically
* Crystallized: knowledge built through experience and ability to apply
accumulated knowledge

131
Q

what is Fluid intelligence

A

ability to process information, understand relationships, think logically

132
Q

what is Crystallized intelligence

A

knowledge built through experience and ability to apply
accumulated knowledge

133
Q

what is Multiple intelligences

A

Gardner and unique intelligence of each person
* Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
* Analytical
* Creative
* Practical

134
Q

what is Triarchic theory (analytical, creative, and practical)

A

Triarchic theory- Robert Sternberg (1999) proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence, which suggests that there are three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical

*Analytical- is similar to that measured by psychometric tests—being good at problem solving, completing analogies, figuring out puzzles, and other academic challenges

  • Creative - involves the ability to gain insight and solve novel problems—to think in new and interesting ways
  • Practical- refers to dealing with everyday tasks, such as knowing whether a parking space is large enough for your vehicle, being a good judge of people, being an effective leader, and so on.
135
Q

what is Emotional intelligence

A

*Managing own emotions
* Using emotions to effectively guide thoughts, behaviors
* Recognizing other’s emotions
* Understanding emotional communication

136
Q

Understand and explain the major biases in IQ testing

A

The overall quantitative measures of a
child’s intelligence relative to that of other children of same age

IQ = (Mental Age)/(Chronological Age) * 100

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