Exam 2

Question 1

Connections between the work of Thorndike and Skinner:

Answer 1

Skinner built upon Thorndikes theory law of effect, Skinner identified 4 types of consequences, Thorndike 2

Question 2

Positive reinforcement

Answer 2

The consequence is the appearance of or increase in the intensity of a stimulus and
increases the strength or probability of the behavior.

Question 3

Negative reinforcement

Answer 3

The consequence is the removal of or decrease in the intensity of a stimulus and
increases the strength or the probability of a behavior
lose their effectiveness
rather quickly.
* This leads to satiation

Question 4

Positive Reinforcer

Answer 4

Those that appear to be innately effective, not dependent on learning
experiences, often called unconditioned
reinforcers.

Question 5

Secondary Reinforcer

Answer 5

Those that are not innately effective
* They acquire reinforcing power by being paired with primary and other secondary reinforcers.
* Because they are dependent on previous learning experiences, they are also called conditioned reinforcers.

Question 6

Natural Reinforcers

Answer 6

events that follow
spontaneously from a behavior

Question 7

Contrived Reinforcers

Answer 7

events that are
provided for the purpose of modifying
behavior

Question 8

Variables the affect operant learning: Contingency

Answer 8

refers to the degree
of correlation between a
behavior and its consequence.

Question 9

Variables that affect operant learning: Contiguity

Answer 9

refers to the gap in time between
a behavior and its reinforcingconsequence.
shorter the interval is, the
faster learning occurs.
*A short interval decreases the likelihood a
different behavior will be reinforced.

Question 10

Reinforcer Characteristics

Answer 10

• Size/strength: A large reinforcer is
  generally more effective than a
  small one
  *Quality: Preferred reinforcers can
  improve the effects of
  reinforcement

Question 11

Behavior Characteristics

Answer 11

Qualities of the behavior being
reinforced affect the ease at which it
can be strengthened.

Question 12

Neurotransmitters involved in reinforcement

Answer 12

The “reward pathway” is activated in the
brain.
*In humans, this is in the septal region, which
runs from the middle of your brain to the
frontal cortex.
*When stimulated, this area of the brain will
produce dopamine.

Question 13

Theories of negative reinforcement:Two-process theory

Answer 13

The two-process theory assumes that both Pavlovian and operant learning together explain avoidance learning.

Question 14

Theories of negative reinforcement:One-process theory

Answer 14

The one-process theory explains avoidance entirely in terms of operant procedures.

Question 15

Shaping

Answer 15

Makes it possible to establish behavior that rarely or never occurs spontaneously

Question 16

Chaining

Answer 16

Connecting behaviors, teaching animal or person to perform a behavior chain

Question 17

Forward Chaining

Answer 17

Begins with reinforcement of first link, repeats until no hesitation, then requires and reinforces 1st and 2nd link until no hesitation, repeats until finished

Question 18

Backward chaining

Answer 18

Begins with reinforcing last link and works towards first link until no hesitation

Question 19

Superstition

Answer 19

Occurs repeatedly even though it does not produce the reinforcers that maintain it, develop in situations where people feel lack of control, test, football game

Question 20

Learned helplessness

Answer 20

Inescapable aversive teach individuals to do nothing through repeated failed attempts to escape, individual learns helplessness

Question 21

Simple schedules: continuous reinforcement

Answer 21

Behavior reinforced everytime it occurs, leads to rapid increases

Question 22

Simple schedules: fixed ratio

Answer 22

behavior is reinforced after
the same number of responses every time; when it has occurred a fixed number of times

Question 23

Simple schedules:Variable ratios

Answer 23

a behavior is reinforced around an average number of
responses.

Question 24

Simple schedules: fixed interval

Answer 24

the behavior is reinforced the first time after it occurs after a constant interval.

Question 25

Variable ratio

Answer 25

behavior is required to last an average amount of time; it is reinforced the first time it occurs after an average interval.

Question 26

Extinction

Answer 26

a previously reinforced behavior is never followed by reinforcers. The immediate effect is often an abrupt increase in the behavior is an extinction burst

Question 27

Stretching the ratio

Answer 27

frequency of reinforcement for the same behavior is slowly thinned

Question 27

The partial reinforcement effect: Discrimination hypothesis

Answer 27

extinction takes longer after intermittent reinforcement because it is more difficult to distinguish between a variable schedule and extinction

Question 28

Response unit hypothesis

Answer 28

Target behavior can be defined in terms of what produces reinforcement

Question 28

Sequential hypothesis

Answer 28

The PRE is due to differences in the sequence of cues during training. Assumption is that there are only two events: reinforcement and nonreinforcement

Question 29

Partial reinforcement effect (pre)

Answer 29

tendency for behavior maintained on an intermittent schedule to be more resistant to extinction than behavior that has been on continuous reinforcement.

Question 30

Types of Punishment: Negative Punishment

Answer 30

Removal of or decrease in the intensity of a stimulus, usually something the individual seeks out

Question 31

Types of Punishment: Positive Punishment

Answer 31

Appearance of, or an increase in the intensity of a stimulus, ex: electric shock, spanking

Question 32

Variables affecting punishment: Contigency

Answer 32

The degree to which punishment reduces frequency of behavior varies with the degree to which a punishment occurs

Question 33

Variables affecting punishment: Contiguity

Answer 33

interval between a behavior and a punishing consequence-longer delay less effective punisher

Question 34

Variables affecting punishment: punisher intensity

Answer 34

Relationship between the intensity of a punisher and its effects

Question 35

Variables affecting punishment: introductory level of punisher

Answer 35

How you begin-strong aversive or weaker aversive

Question 36

Variables affecting punishment: reinforcement of the punished behavior

Answer 36

unwanted behavior almost certainly earns reinforcement

Question 37

variables affecting punishment: alternative sources of reinforecement

Answer 37

when punishing an unwanted behavior, provide an alternative means of obtaining the reinforcers that maintain that behavior

Question 38

Variables affecting punishment: motivating operations

Answer 38

increase the effectiveness of a reinforcer by performing an establishing, motivating operation

Question 39

Problems with punishment: escape

Answer 39

escape or avoidance of source of punishment

Question 40

Problems with punishment: aggression

Answer 40

attacking

Question 41

problems with punishment: suppression

Answer 41

suppression of behavior

Question 42

problems with punishment: potential for abuse

Answer 42

potential for abuse by the punisher-resorting to extreme forms of punishment

Question 43

problems with punishment: imitation of the punisher

Answer 43

tend to imitate those who punish them

Question 44

Alternatives to punishment: response prevention

Answer 44

prevent the behavior from occurring by alterin the environment

Question 45

Alternatives to punishment: differential reinforcement

Answer 45

combines nonreinforcement of unwanted behavior and reinforcement of another behavior

Question 46

Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA)

Answer 46

reinforcement becomes available for a specified alternative to unwanted behavior

Question 47

Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI)

Answer 47

reinforce a behavior incompatible with the unwanted behavior

Question 48

Differential reinforcement of low rate (DRL)

Answer 48

behavior earns reinforcement but only if it occurs at a low rate

Question 49

Types of observational learning: social

Answer 49

observing the behavior of another individual and the consequences of the model's behavior

Question 50

vicarious punishment

Answer 50

consequences of the model's behavior weaken the observer's tendency to behave a similar way

Question 51

vicarious reinforcement

Answer 51

consequences of model's behaviors strengthen the observer's tendency to behave a similar way

Question 52

Types of observational learning:asocial

Answer 52

learning observed events in the absence of a model

Question 53

Variables affecting observational learning: difficulty of the task

Answer 53

more difficult task, less learning will likely occur during observation

Question 54

Variables affecting observational learning: skilled vs unskilled model

Answer 54

Skilled: model demonstrates the proper performance of task Unskilled: observer watches the model as they learn to perform the task

Question 55

Variables affecting observational learning: characteristics of the model

Answer 55

observers learn better from attractive, likable, and prestigious models than from those who lack

Question 56

variables affecting observational learning: characteristics of observer

Answer 56

species of observer, humans get most out of observation

Question 57

variables affecting observational learning: consequences of observed acts

Answer 57

serve as critical function, consequences of observed events that are not modeled also prove critical

Question 58

variable affecting observational learning: consequences of observer's behavior

Answer 58

if observing others pays off, we tend to do it more