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Psych 111 > Exam #2 > Flashcards

Exam #2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Learning

A

takes a quantitative approach to the relationship between an organism’s past experience and current behavior

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2
Q

Memory

A

theories include unobservable mental processes

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3
Q

Nonassociative Learning

A

the response to a single stimulus changes when it is repeated

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4
Q

Associative Learning

A

learning about relationships between events

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5
Q

Social Learning

A

learning by instruction or by observing the behavior of others

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6
Q

Habituation

A

decreased response after repeated exposure to a stimulus; especially if the stimulus is neither harmful nor rewarding (ex: flinching when there is a sudden sound…sound keeps occurring but nothing bad happens)

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7
Q

Dishabituation

A

increased response because of a change in something familiar

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8
Q

Sensitization

A

a threatening or painful stimulus leads to increased response to a subsequent stimulus (the same or different stimulus)

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9
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

learning that one stimulus predicts another; a previously neutral stimulus (sound of a bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (presentation of food)

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10
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

learning the relationship between a response and the consequences of that response

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11
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A

naturally produces a particular response

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12
Q

Unconditioned Response (UR)

A

reliable response to unconditioned stimulus (US)

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13
Q

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A

Initially neutral and produces no response

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14
Q

Conditioned Response (CR)

A

resembles the unconditioned response (UR) after conditioning

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15
Q

Acquisition

A

phase of classical conditioning when the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) are presented together

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16
Q

Extinction

A

conditioned stimulus (CS) occurs without the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the learned response (conditioned response) is gradually eliminated

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17
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

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18
Q

Second-Order Conditioning

A

pair a new neutral stimulus with the conditioned stimulus (CS). Afterwards, it will also produce the conditioned response (CR)

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19
Q

Generalization

A

stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) produces conditioned response (CR) too

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20
Q

Discrimination

A

learning that a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) is NOT followed by the unconditioned stimulus (US), so the conditioned response (UR) stops occurring

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21
Q

Simple motor responses

A

eye blinks, breathing rate

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22
Q

Activities of glands & internal organs

A

salivation, release of hormones, heart-rate, etc

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23
Q

Emotional Responses

A

contains elements of both simple motor responses and activities of glands and internal organs

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24
Q

Reinforcement

A

a stimulus or event that increases the behavior that led to it; indicates what the desired behavior is

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25
Q

Punishment

A

a stimulus or event that decreases the behavior that led to it; indicates what NOT to do

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26
Q

Positive Operant Conditioning

A

presence of something

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27
Q

Negative Operant Conditioning

A

absence of something

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28
Q

Primary Reinforcer

A

satisfies biological needs

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29
Q

Secondary Reinforcer

A

associated with or predicts a primary reinforcer; can help bridge a time gap between behavior and primary reinforcer

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30
Q

Shaping

A

rewarding successive approximations to desired behavior

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31
Q

Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)

A

(part of midbrain) where neurons make dopamine

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32
Q

Fixed Ratio Schedule (FRS)

A

reward is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made

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33
Q

Variable Ratio Schedule (VRS)

A

reward is delivered after some average number of responses - but there is variability around the average

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34
Q

Fixed Interval Schedule (FIS)

A

a response will produce a reward after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reward

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35
Q

Variable Interval Schedule (VIS)

A

a response will produce a reward at some average amount of time after the last reward - but there is variability around the average

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36
Q

Three-term contingency

A

discriminative stimulus (context), response, reinforcer

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37
Q

Superstitious Behavior

A

behavior increases when correlated with reinforcement, but the impact of intermittent reinforcement shows that even a weak correlation can be effective; behavior might be reinforced by a random accident/coincidence

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38
Q

Latent Learning

A

learning without reward

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39
Q

Observational Learning

A

imitate or model what others do (Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment)

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40
Q

Memory

A

ability to store and retrieve information over time

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40
Q

Vicarious Fear Conditioning

A

captive monkeys who have never seen a live snake become fearful of fake snakes after observing wild monkeys responding fearfully, but do NOT become fearful of a fake rabbit after seeing a video of another monkey apparently fearful of a rabbit (biological preparedness)

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41
Q

Three Stages of Memory

A

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

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42
Q

Encoding (memory stage)

A

transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into a memory

43
Q

Storage (memory stage)

A

maintaining information in memory over time

44
Q

Retrieval (memory stage)

A

bringing to mind information that was previously encoded and stored

45
Q

Sensory Memory

A

perfect copy of the sensory input; brief duration; have to transfer information to short term memory before sensory memory fades
- Visual: 400ms
- Auditory: 3 sec

46
Q

Short term/Working Memory

A

the contents of consciousness; what’s in your mind right now
- 30 sec if not rehearsed (duration)
- unless it is refreshed by rehearsal, repeating something to yourself
- limited capacity is about 7 items (+/- 2)

47
Q

Long Term Memory

A

up to a lifetime

48
Q

Iconic Memory

A

copy of visual input
- lasts about 400ms

49
Q

Echoic Memory

A

copy of auditory input
- last about 3 sec

50
Q

Visual Memory

A

maintains stable visual environment - we fill in gaps with no input every time we blink

51
Q

Auditory Memory

A

intonation - question vs sentences or sarcastic vs serious - is spread out over a few seconds

52
Q

Primacy Effect - Serial Position Curve

A

people have a good memory for items at the beginning of a list

53
Q

Recency Effect - Serial Position Curve

A

people have a good memory for item as the end of a list

54
Q

“item” for short term memory

A

Something that has already been interpreted, a meaningful unit; smaller bits can be chunked into larger units

55
Q

Working Memory

A
  • short term store of information from outside world PLUS a “space” for manipulating information
  • information can enter working memory from sensory memory (the outside world), long-term memory (info just retrieved), and internally created information
  • correlates strongly with cognitive task performance
56
Q

Long Term Memory: Encoding

A
  • how you think about some material when you first encounter it determines the likelihood that it will be remembered later
  • thinking about the meaning of an item is better than thinking about more superficial characteristics: levels-of-processing idea
57
Q

Orthographic (levels-of-processing)

A
  • shallow
  • does the word have two e’s?
  • are the first & last letters in alphabetical order?
58
Q

Phonological (levels-of-processing)

A
  • medium
  • does the word rhyme with “cable”?
  • does the word have 2 syllables?
59
Q

Semantic (levels-of-processing)

A
  • deep
  • is it living or non-living?
  • edible or inedible?
  • found indoors or outdoors?
  • estimate the price
  • rate pleasantness
    (best bc it links current items to prior knowledge)
60
Q

Organizational Encoding

A

creating relationships between individual items on a list

61
Q

How memory is stored?

A
  • learning consists of changing the strengths of the synaptic connections between neurons
  • synaptic strength is the probability that A will cause B to fire
62
Q

Amnesia

A

deficit in long-term memory

63
Q

Organic Amnesia

A

memory deficit due to brain damage

64
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

difficulty learning new material AFTER the brain damage

65
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

difficulty remembering material that was learned BEFORE the brain damage

66
Q

Consolidating a Memory

A

making it more stable and permanent after the initial learning caused by:
- re-playing the memory - retrieving it and bringing it to mind
- can occur during sleep

67
Q

Consolidation in the Medial Temporal Lobe (MTL)

A
  • memories are initially formed both here and in other parts of the cortex
  • newly-formed memories here are strong, while being weak in other cortical areas
  • output from here helps “train” other cortical areas to increase the strength of a memory in those areas
68
Q

Implicit Memory

A
  • does not require the MTL
  • a single memory is stored in one brain area or a connection between two brain areas
69
Q

Explicit Memory

A
  • needs MTL to tie parts together
  • a single memory is spread across many brain areas
70
Q

Retrieval Cue

A

some piece of information that brings a memory into awareness (working memory)
- part of the original memory that activates other associated parts of that memory
- can come from the outside world or be internally generated

71
Q

Transfer-appropriate Processing

A

access to a stored memory is best when mental operations during encoding & retrieval match

72
Q

Re-consolidation

A

new information can be added to a memory when it is retrieved, the mixture is then stored

73
Q

Memory Failure

A
  • most of what’s forgotten is forgotten shortly after encoding (newer memories are more fragile than older memories)
  • retrieval can fail even when a memory exists, bc some retrieval cues are better than others
  • similar/related memories are harder to distinguish: interference occurs during retrieval
74
Q

Ebbinghaus’ Method

A
  • learn list of nonsense syllables until he could recall everything on the list (100%)
  • re-test at some later time
75
Q

Proactive Interference

A

old material impairs memory for new material

76
Q

Retroactive Interference

A

new material impairs memory for old material

77
Q

Motivated Forgetting

A

people can deliberately put things out of mind

78
Q

Language

A

system for communicating with others using signals that convey meaning and are combined according to rules of grammar

79
Q

Grammar

A

set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages

80
Q

Modality-independent

A

human language can be auditory or visual

81
Q

Morpheme

A

the smallest meaningful unit in a language (ex: ing)

82
Q

Content Morpheme

A

nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs (convey much of the meaning of a sentence, new items created constantly)

83
Q

Function Morpheme

A

preposition, pronouns, articles, -ed for past tense, -s for plural, etc (a fixed, small set of items with light meaning)

84
Q

Phoneme

A

Smallest unit of sound that is
recognizable as speech

85
Q

Syntax

A
  • rules for how words can be combined from phrases and sentences
  • word order
  • agreement between nouns & verbs, nouns & adjectives
  • each language has its own
86
Q

Deep Language Structure

A

meaning of a sentence

87
Q

Surface Language Structure

A
  • how a sentence is worded
  • ex: smith sent the email vs. the email was sent by smith
88
Q

When children begin to form their first words…

A
  • produced at 10-12 months of age
  • nouns (concrete objects) are formed before verbs mostly
89
Q

Fast Mapping

A
  • children can map a word onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure
90
Q

When children begin to utilize two-word speech…

A
  • occurs at around 24 months of age
  • as children learn grammar, they tend to overgeneralize rules (over regularization of past tense, for instance)
91
Q

Telagraphic Speech

A

speech that is devoid of function morphemes and consists mostly of content words

92
Q

When children begin to generate full simple sentences…

A

by three years of age

93
Q

When many aspects of the language acquisition processes are complete in children…

A
  • by 4 to 5 years of age
  • vocabulary is at least 10,000 words
94
Q

“Motherese”

A

simplified child-directed speech

95
Q

Nativist Explanantions

A

argue that humans are born ready to start acquiring a language, no “reinforcement” is necessary

96
Q

Do children learn languages better/faster than adults do/

A
  • Vocabulary: no
  • Phonology: yes
  • Syntax: yes
97
Q

Which brain hemisphere does language rely on?

A

the LEFT hemisphere

98
Q

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

A

proposal that language shapes the nature of thought (originated by Benjamin Whorf)

99
Q

Does language influence thought?

A

Language provides a compact code for encoding and retrieving specific memories. Often what we remember is the verbal description, not the details of an event.

100
Q

Concept

A

mental representation that groups or categorizes shared features of related objects, events, or other stimuli

101
Q

Category

A

groups of concepts that belong together

102
Q

Theories of what makes a category

A
  • rule
  • family resemblane
103
Q

Category - Rule

A

necessary and sufficient conditions to belong. Only work for some categories.

104
Q

Category - Family Resemblance

A

members of a category have features that are frequently found, but not every member has all the features.

105
Q

Prototype Theory

A

people make category judgements by comparing new instances to the category’s prototype - the “best” or “most typical” member of a category

106
Q

Exemplar Theory

A

people make category judgements by comparing a new instance with stored memories for other instances of the same category

Psych 111 (2 decks)

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