Exam #1 Flashcards
Clinical
to understand and treat mental illness
Cognitive
basic skills and processes in attention, memory, and language perception
Cultural
how geography, national beliefs, and religious values influence mental life and behavior
Health
relationship between psychological processes and physical health
Industrial/Organizational
how people interact at work, and within different organizational structures
Relationships
quality of romantic relationships and close friendships
Social/Personality
how people interact
Nativism
certain kinds of knowledge are inborn or innate
Empiricism
all knowledge is acquired through experience
Dualism
the mind and body are made of fundamentally different substances; physical principles do not apply to the mind; the mind is the activity of the brain, not a separate substance
Behaviorism
the scientific study of observable behavior
Theory
explanation based on observations
Hypothesis
a prediction made based on the theory
Descriptive Research
measuring what occurs
Naturalistic Observation
examining humanistic behaviors
Self Report
examining personal patterns of behavior
Case Study
focuses on only one research participant
Correlational Research
measuring the relationship between two factors
Experimental Research
altering one variable (independent variable) and measuring the influence on another variable (dependent variable); eliminates the ambiguity about casualty that correlational research contains.
Group Design
different participants get different levels of the independent variable
Within-subject design
each participant gets each level of the independent variable
correlation coefficient, r
measures the strength of the relationship
r = 1.0
perfect positive correlation
r = -1.0
perfect negative correlation
r = 0
no correlation
Population
everyone who we think/hope the results apply to
Sample
participants in the study
Convenience Samples
a type of non-probability sampling that involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population that is close to hand.
Prior to studies being conducted with human participants, the research must first be approved by the…
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Informed consent
information provided about the experiment before participating
Freedom from coercion
voluntary participation and the right to withdraw
Risk/benefit analysis
voluntary participation and the right to withdraw
3 basic principles of research done with animal participants
- Replace
- Reduce
- Refine
Neurons
the cells that communicate with one another to process information (no more than ½ of the cells in the nervous system)
Glia
maintain the local environment that neurons need to function (electrical environment, waste clean-up, immune function)
Synapse
relationship between 2 neurons (axon of one and dendrite of another)
Parts of a neuron
- Cell body
- Dendrites
- Axons
Cell Body
general functions needed to keep the cell alive; integrates electrical activity from the dendrites
Dendrites (input)
receive communication from other neurons; branch-like figures (bushier means more synaptic inputs, sparser means fewer synaptic inputs)
Axons (output)
send signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands
Voltage
difference in electrical charge (positive or negative) between two locations [in neurons, the two locations are the inside and outside of the cell] voltage = potential
Resting Potential
inside of cell is more negative
Action Potential
inside of cell is more positive
Myelin
keeps the current from escaping the axon in glial cells
Neurotransmitters
chemical molecules that allow neurons to communicate with each other throughout the body
Glutamate
most common excitatory neurotransmitter
GABA
most common inhibitory neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine
axon to muscle neurotransmitter (also in brain)
Modulatory neurotransmitters
change how neurons respond to Glutamate and GABA
How do psychoactive drugs work?
Drugs affect the nervous system by increasing, interfering with, or mimicking neurotransmitters
Agonists
drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter
Antagonists
drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
connects to the Central Nervous System (CNS) to the body’s organs and muscles
Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
conveys sensory information and motor commands into and out of the CNS
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
controls bodily organs (heart, digestive system, etc.) and glands (make hormones)
Sympathetic Nervous System
prepares the body for action/fight
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Helps body return to resting state, building energy supply
Spinal cord
Divided into four main sections; each is related to different parts of the body
Damage done higher on the spinal cord usually means greater impairment because everything below there is disconnected from the brain.
Divisions of the spinal cord
Cervical (C1-C7)
Thoracic (T1-T12)
Lumbar (L1-L5)
Sacrum (S1-S5)
Spinal reflexes
simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions without involving the brain
Reflex
consists of a short neural pathway between a specific sensory input and a specific action
Pain Withdrawal Reflex
a reflex circuit like this has the advantage of being quick - time is saved by not sending info to the brain for further processing before an action is initiated.
Medulla & Pons
multiple structures that perform different functions essential for survival:
- Heart rate
- Breathing
- Swallowing
- Vomiting
- Urination
Reticular formation & Midbrain
multiple structures doing different things:
- Regulate the stages of sleep [major complementary function]
- Regulate level alertness when awake
- Visual function: directs eye movements towards something that has changed
- Auditory function: helps localize where a sound is coming from
Cerebellum
A biological computer that assists the forebrain with control of movement (motor control); Maintaining balance and stability;
Programs the sequence and timing of different muscles for a complex movement;
Coordinating movements with visual input; Learning movement sequences
Forebrain
Cerebral cortex + Subcortical structures;
Everything in the forebrain occurs in pairs; Right side related to the left side of the body <-> Left side related to the right side of the body
Subcortical structures
- Hypothalamus
- Hormone
- Thalamus
- Basal Ganglia
- Amygdala
Hypothalamus
regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior. Controls the pituitary gland located just below it, at the base of the brain.
Hormone
Made by a gland, released into the bloodstream, detected by other bodily organs that respond to the hormone
Hypothalamus Gland
controls motivation and regulates body functions
Pituitary Gland
governs release of hormones
Thyroid Gland
controls how the body burns energy
Parathyroid Gland
maintains calcium levels
Thymus Gland
governs immune system
Adrenal Gland
blood pressure, blood sugar, electrolyte levels in blood
Pancreas
controls digestion
Ovaries & Testes
influence reproduction
Thalamus
relays and filters information from the senses and transmits it to the cerebral cortex (gateway to the cortex)
Basal Ganglia
set of subcortical structures that helps coordinate intentional movements. Interacts closely with motor region of cerebral cortex -> where voluntary movements start
Amygdala
helps detect emotionally significant stimuli (potential danger or reward) and alert the cerebral cortex. Coordinates bodily response to emotional situations (heart rate, breathing, etc.). Known for giving crude information, coordinates closely with the hypothalamus.
5 Lobes of the cerebral cortex
- occipital
- parietal
- temporal
- frontal
- insula
Occipital Lobe
processes visual information
Parietal Lobe
processes information about touch, and visuo-spatial information
Temporal Lobe
responsible for hearing and language, visual recognition, and memory formation
Frontal Lobe
specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, and judgment
Insula Lobe
(hidden behind the parietal) taste, smell, visceral sensation (bodily needs), ties together experience of pain and emotional response
Motor Control
right hemisphere controls movements of limbs on the left side of the body, left hemisphere controls movements of limbs on the right side of the body
Somatosensation
right hemisphere senses touch, limb position, etc from the left side of the body, left hemisphere does the same for the right side of the body
Vision
right hemisphere received into the left visual field - what’s to the left of your nose - and vice-versa for the left hemisphere
Left hemisphere
controls language (speaking, writing, reading, listening)
Right hemisphere
spatial tasks
Corpus callosum
where the two hemispheres communicate with each other. If the corpus callosum is cut (to relieve severe epilepsy), the right hemisphere seems to be unaware of words that the left hemisphere has just read
Raw sensation
simple stimulation of a sense organ
Full perception
organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy to another; in sensation, transforming of stimulus energies into electrical current in sensory receptors.
3 Properties of light waves
- frequency
- amplitude
- purity
Frequency
determines color
AMplitude
determines brightness
Purity
saturation of richness or color
Photoreceptors
(rods, cones) transduce light energy into electrical current
Ganglion cells
final neurons that send output to the brain
Optic nerve
axons of ganglion cells bundled together. Carry action potentials from the eye to the brain
Blind spot
point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind spot” because there are no photoreceptors there
Fovea
central area of retina, with more photoreceptors per square millimeter (all cones)
Rods as photoreceptors
- Peripheral retina
- Detect luminance only (no color, only brightness)
- Twilight or low light
Cones as photoreceptors
- Near center of retina
- Fine detail and color vision
- Daylight or well-lit conditions
Lateral geniculate
the visual nucleus in the thalamus
Feature detection
individual V1 neurons are tuned to specific edge orientations, directions of motion, and colors.
Ventral path
recognition of objects. Object constancy allows us to recognize the same object from different viewing angles and distances.
Dorsal path
represents where an object is relative to you - how far, what angle, what direction it is moving in, etc. Helps guide action.
Attention
necessary for accurate visual perception; the glue that binds individual features into a whole percept.
Binding problem
how features are linked together so that we see unified objects in our visual world rather than free-floating or miscombined features.
(Errors in binding occur when there is insufficient attention)
Illusory conjunction
perceptual mistake where features from multiple objects are incorrectly combined (colors, shapes, letters, etc)
Feature integration theory
idea that focused attention is not required to detect the individual features that comprise a stimulus, but is required to bind those individual features together
Binding process
utilizes structures in the ventral and especially the dorsal path (parietal lobe)
Synesthesia
may involve atypical feature binding
The Gestalt Principles
- proximity
- similarity
- continuity
- closure
- connectedness
- common fate
Proximity
group nearby elements together
Similarity
group elements that are similar
Continuity
perceive continuous patterns
Closure
fill in gaps
Connectedness
spots, lines, and areas seen as a unit when connected
Common fate
elements that move together are part of the same object
Binocular depth cues
difference in the retinal images of the two eyes that provides information about depth
Monocular depth cues
aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye (Relative size, familiar size, linear perspective, texture gradient, interposition, relative height)
Sound
air pressure wave; moving objects move the air molecule around them, air molecule become compressed
Properties of sound waves
- frequency
- amplitude
- complexity
Frequency
corresponds to our perception of pitch
Amplitude
corresponds to our perception of loudness
Complexity
corresponds to our perception of timbre
Parts of the human ear
- outer ear
- middle ear
- inner ear
Outer ear
funnels sound waves inward
Middle ear
bones that transmit vibrations
Inner ear
transduces vibrations into electrical energy
Auditory parts of the human inner ear
- cochlea
- basilar membrane
- hair cells
Cochlea
fluid-filled tube, rolled up into a coil
Basilar membrane
base of the cochlea, undulates when vibrations from the ossicles reach the cochlear fluid
Hair cells
the sensory receptors. Long, thin cells embedded in the basilar membrane.
RATE code for pitch
hair cell activity tracks sound vibration in time. Works best for lower pitches.
PLACE code for pitch
different sections of basilar membrane vibrate more at higher versus lower pitches.
Loudness
number of hair cells active
Time Difference
Sound coming from the right side will arrive at the right ear slightly earlier than the left ear
Frequency difference
the head absorbs high frequencies. If a sound is coming from the right, the right ear will pick up higher frequencies than the left ear.
Types of hearing loss
- conductive hearing less
- sensorineural hearing loss
- congenital deafness (total)
Conductive hearing loss
damage to the eardrum or ossicles
Sensorineural hearing loss
damage to the cochlea, hair cells, or auditory nerve
Congenital deafness (total)
several different versions due to a defect in some gene that’s necessary in the cochlea.
Transducers of somatosensation
- skin and just under the skin
- joints
- muscles
Somatosensation
touch, temp., pain, body position
The chemical senses
smell & taste
Smell
information is routed to several brain systems (and bypasses the thalamus)
Smell in the frontal cortex
conscious perception of smell
Smell in the hypothalamus amygdala
motivational and emotional aspects of smell
Smell in the hippocampus
odor memory
Taste
separate nutritious things from poisons; some aspects are genetic, while others are learned,
5 kinds of taste receptors
- sweet
- salty
- sour
- bitter
- umami
Consciousness
A subjective experience of the external world and one’s own mind
People judge the consciousness of others based on their perceived ability to experience and to act deliberately
Properties of consciousness
- intentionality
- unity
- selectivity
intentionality
conscious of something - in the world or your own thoughts/emotions
Unity
input from the different senses and your internal thoughts integrated into one experience
Selectivity
at any one moment, a person is aware of only a fraction of what they could be aware of
Transience
contents of awareness tend to change from moment to moment
Dichotic listening
a technique used to study attention in which two different auditory signals played in both ears
Mind Wandering
attention disengaged from the outside world and directed at their own thoughts - but allowed to drift from topic to topic
Subliminal perception
individuals are able to discriminate visual stimuli they report not consciously seeing
Sleep stages
- stages 1&2
- stages 3&4
- REM
Sleep stages 1 & 2
lighter sleep, easier to wake up (early)
Sleep stages 3 & 4
“slow wave” sleep, harder to wake someone up (late)
REM sleep stage
rapid eye movements under closed eyelids, dreaming, muscles are actively inhibited (brainstem neurons inhibit spinal motor neurons)
Functions of sleep
- physical restoration of cell
- reinforcing memories that were formed during the day
Short term sleep deprivation
increases sensitivity to pain, trouble maintaining body temperature, poor immune function, poor retention of new memories
Total sleep deprivation
leads to death
Sleep disorders
- insomnia
- sleep apnea
- somnambulism
- narcolepsy
- sleep paralysis
- night terrors
Insomnia
difficulty falling asleep / staying asleep
Sleep apnea
stop breathing for short periods of time while alseep
Somnambulism
sleepwalking, occurs only during stage 3 & 4
Narcolepsy
suddenly falling asleep during a waking activity
Sleep paralysis
waking up unable to move
Night terrors
abruptly waking up in a panic
Freudian theory
dreams represent suppressed wishes, transformed to hide their true intent
Activation synthesis theory
stored information is being refreshed, updated, and re-arranged (partly to weave new learning). As snippets fly by, part of our brain tries to turn them into a story.
Drug classes
- depressants
- stimulants
- opiates
Depressants
reduce CNS activity by increasing activity of GABA - the main inhibitory neurotransmitter
(Alcohol,
Barbiturates,
Benzodiazepines,
Inhalants)
Stimulants
increase CNS activity, but in many different ways across drugs (Caffeine, Nicotine
Amphetamines,
Cocaine,
Ecstasy/MDMA,
Drugs prescribed for ADHD/ADD)
Opiates
originate from a plant, bind to the same receptors as naturally occurring neurotransmitters called endorphins. Many endorphin receptors in a brain area important for pain reception (cannabis/hallucinogens)
Cannabis
THC in the plant binds to same receptors as a naturally occurring neurotransmitter called anandamide
Hallucinogens
affect neurotransmitters in midbrain (dopamine, serotonin) that in turn influence the cortex (LSD, ecstasy)
