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OLD "MBS 602" > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the fuel of the human body and every cell can metabolize it?

A

glucose

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2
Q

What 3 forms is glucose found in?

A
  1. monosaccharide
  2. disaccharide
  3. polysaccharide
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3
Q

What is the formula for a carbohydrate?

A

Cx(H2O)y

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4
Q

What are the 2 glucose disaccharides?

A
  1. sucrose
  2. lactose
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5
Q

What is sucrose made from?

A

glucose + fructose

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6
Q

What is lactose made from?

A

galactose + glucose

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7
Q

Starch is a ______saccharide

A

polysaccharide

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8
Q

What 2 polymers make up starch?

A

amylose + amylopectin

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9
Q

What is starch used for?

A

energy storage

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10
Q

Is starch made of more amylose or amylopectin?

A

amylopectin (75%)

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11
Q

Is amylose branch or unbranched?

A

unbranched

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12
Q

Is amylopectin branched or unbranched?

A

branched

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13
Q

What does starch breakdown into?

A

maltose
maltotriose
isomaltose

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14
Q

Maltose is a _____saccharide and Maltotriose is a ______saccharide

A

maltose: disaccharide
maltotriose: polysaccharide

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15
Q

Maltose and maltotriose have 1-4 linkages, why does isomaltose have a 1-6 linkage?

A

Amylopectin is branched and has a 1-6 linkage and that is where it comes from

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16
Q

What 2 types of enzymes break down carbohydrates?

A
  1. soluble enzymes
  2. anchored enzymes
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17
Q

What is an example of a soluble enzyme that breaks down carbs?

A

amylases

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18
Q

Where are amylases located?

A

saliva and intestines

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19
Q

What is an example of a anchored enzyme that breaks down carbs?

A

glycosidases

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20
Q

Where are glycosidases located?

A

intestines

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21
Q

How is monosaccharide glucose dealt with?

A

absorbed through intestine via SGLT-1

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22
Q

What are glycosidases anchored to?

A

microvilli in the intestines

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23
Q

What are the 3 types of microvilli-anchored enzymes?

A
  1. sucrase-isomaltase (alpha-glucosidase)
  2. maltase (alpha-glucosidase)
  3. lactase (beta-galactosidase)
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24
Q

Sucrase-isomaltase (alpha-glucosidase) splits __________ and ___________

A

sucrose and isomaltose

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25
Q

What is isomaltose made of?

A

2 glucose

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26
Q

Maltase (alpha-glucosidase) splits ________

A

maltose

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27
Q

What is maltose made of?

A

2 glucose

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28
Q

Lactase (beta-galactosidase) splits ________

A

lactose

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29
Q

Dietary glycogen is mainly ___________

A

amylopectin

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30
Q

Amylases mainly break down amylopectin or amylose?

A

amylopectin

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31
Q

Degrading amylose via amylase leaves you with what?

A

maltose and maltotriose

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32
Q

Degrading amylopectin via amylase leaves you with what?

A

glucose and limit dextrin

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33
Q

Degrading amylose and amylopectin with amylase then microvilli-anchored enzymes leaves you with…?

A

glucose

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34
Q

What causes lactase restriction?

A

loss of beta-galactose to break down beta (1-4) & (1-6) linkage in lactose

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35
Q

What are lactase tablets?

A

provides the body with the enzyme beta-galactosidase to break down lactose

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36
Q

Veggies are rich in _________ and________ which require alpha-galactosidases to break them down

A

Raffinose
Stachyose

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37
Q

What enzyme does Beano provide to help break Raffinose and Stachyose down in veggies?

A

alpha-galactosidases

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38
Q

What is sorbitol and why is it an issue?

A

in sugar free gum and cannot be broken down so bacteria in gut feed on it causing bloating

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39
Q

What is Lactulose and what does it do?

A

fructose + galactose
given as a laxative to decrease intestinal production of ammonia

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40
Q

What is considered a complex carb?

A

3 or more sugars

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41
Q

Glucose enters cells via _________ transport

A

facilitated (passive) transport

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42
Q

What are 3 glucose transporters?

A
  1. GLUT 1-3
  2. GLUT 4
  3. SGLT
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43
Q

Is GLUT 1-3 insulin sensitive or insensitive?

A

insensitive

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44
Q

Is GLUT 4 insulin sensitive or insensitive?

A

sensitive

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45
Q

Where is GLUT 4 found?

A

muscle and adipose cells

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46
Q

SGLT are driven by _____ gradient

A

Na2+

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47
Q

How is glucose retained in the cell?

A

hexokinase phosphorylates at position 6

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48
Q

Is the phosphorylation of glucose via hexokinase reversible or irreversible and why?

A

irreversible; coupled with ATP hydrolysis

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49
Q

Hexokinase I and III have ____________ kinetics

A

Michaelis-Menten kinetics (hyperbolic curve)

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50
Q

Why does Hexokinase I and III have Michaelis-Menten kinetics (hyperbolic curve)?

A

hexokinase in RBC are saturated with glucose so the [glucose] has little affect on hexokinase
- glucose-independent

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51
Q

Hexokinase IV is also known as ___________

A

glucokinase

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52
Q

Where is glucokinase found?

A

liver cells

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53
Q

Does glucokinase have high or low affinity for glucose and why?

A

low; glucokinase is almost never saturated with glucose so the [glucose] affects the activity a lot

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54
Q

What kind of kinetics does glucokinase have?

A

cooperatively kinetics
- glucose-dependent

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55
Q

What is the main signal to pancreas to secrete insulin?

A

glucose

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56
Q

Where is insulin stored?

A

granules in beta pancreas cells

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57
Q

How is insulin processed to become active?

A

C-peptide is cleaved off and B and A chain are connected

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58
Q

What is 2nM of glucose considered?

A

hypoglycemia (low)

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59
Q

What is >5mM of glucose considered?

A

hyperglycemia (high)

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60
Q

What secretes glucagon?

A

pancreatic alpha-cells
intestinal L-cells

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61
Q

What are the potentiators for insulin secretion?

A

amino acids
fatty acids
ketone bodies

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62
Q

What is the principal stimulus for glucagon production?

A

amino acids

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63
Q

What is the potentiator for glucagon secretion?

A

epinephrine

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64
Q

Insulin and glucagon secretion are __________ related

A

inversely

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65
Q

What is the glycemic index?

A

classifies how QUICKLY a food will affect the blood glucose level

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66
Q

How does constant consumption of high fructose corn syrup cause DMII?

A

pancreas becomes desensitized to glucose spikes and won’t secrete insulin

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67
Q

What sodium-dependent glucose transporter does the intestine use?

A

SGLT-1

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68
Q

What is the ratio of Na : glucose for SGLT-1 in intestines?

A

2Na : 1 glucose

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69
Q

What controls the flux of sodium through SGLT-1 and 2?

A

Na/K ATPase

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70
Q

What sodium-dependent glucose transporter does the kidney use?

A

SGLT-2

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71
Q

What is the ratio of Na : glucose for SGLT-2 in kidney?

A

1:1

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72
Q

How do anti-SGLT-2 medications work?

A

prevent hyperglycemia by blocking SGLT-2 so glucose cannot be absorbed

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73
Q

What two tissues in the body are exclusively fueled by glucose?

A

brain
red blood cells

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74
Q

Why is glucose stored as a complex carb?

A

free glucose is osmotically active and will enter RBC and cause them to burst

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75
Q

What is the definition of glycolysis?

A

the breakdown of glucose to extract energy from thr C-C bonds

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76
Q

What form of glycolysis creates the most energy?

A

oxidative phosphorylation (O2 present)

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77
Q

What kind of cells preform anaerobic glycolysis?

A

red blood cells (no mitochondria)

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78
Q

What is the start and end product of glycolysis?

A

glucose (C6)
pyruvate (C3)

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79
Q

What are the 2 phases of glycolysis?

A
  1. prep phase
  2. pay-off phase
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80
Q

Which phase in glycolysis cost energy and which gains energy?

A

prep phase: loss E
pay off: gain E

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81
Q

What’s the net cost of the prep phase of glycolysis?

A

2 ATP (2 dephosphorylation events)

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82
Q

What is the net gain of the pay-off phase of glycolysis?

A

4 ATP
2 NADH
2 H+

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83
Q

What enzymes in glycolysis perform DE-phosphorylations (ATP–>ADP)?

A

hexokinase
phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1)

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84
Q

What enzymes in glycolysis perform phosphorylations (ADP–>ATP)?

A

phosphoglycerokinase
pyruvate kinase

85
Q

What enzyme in glycolysis converts NAD+ to NADH?

86
Q

Everything in the pay off stage of glycolysis is x____ because??

A

2
b/c 2 GAP is made per glucose

87
Q

What are the enzymes that catalyze irreversible reactions in glycolysis?

A

hexokinase
PFK-1
pyruvate kinase

88
Q

What is the net gain of degradation of 1 glucose in glycolysis?

A

2 NADH
2 ATP
2 pyruvate

89
Q

What is the overall reaction of glycolysis?

A

glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD –> 2 pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H + 2H2O

90
Q

What is the limiting reactant in glycolysis?

A

NAD+ (does not come from diet, must be made in cells)

91
Q

What is the purpose of NAD+/NADH?

A

electron carrier

92
Q

Which is oxidized and which is reduced form? NAD/NADH

A

NAD+: oxidized
NADH: reduced (extra H)

93
Q

What is the ratio of NAD+/NADH?

A

Large (much more NAD+ because cells are always ready to use it)

94
Q

How do you treat Pellagra?

A

Vitamin B3 supplement

95
Q

How can NADH be oxidized back into NAD+?

A

Lactate DH can reduce pyruvate into lactate which puts of NAD+ back into glycolysis for GAP DH

96
Q

How does the total glycolytic pathway change when NAD+ is made from lactate?

A

instead of 2 pyruvate as a product there is 2 lactate instead

97
Q

What is the advantage and disadvantage of anaerobic glycolysis?

A

advantage: very quick way to replenish glycolysis

disadvantage: acidifies blood (lactate and H+)

98
Q

How is the acidification of blood by anaerobic glycolysis fixed?

A

HCO3- (carbonate) neutralizes

99
Q

Glycolysis with or with out O2 results in much smaller production of H+

100
Q

How many ATP are made in O2 present glycolysis vs. anaerobic glycolysis?

A

regular: 36/38ATP
anaerobic: 2 ATP

101
Q

What are 2 ways of controlling glycolysis?

A
  1. control access to blood/cells via GLUTs
  2. AMP/ATP regulation of PFK
102
Q

In the presence of AMP there is a ____________ relationship to PFK activity

A

hyperbolic (lowers Km)

103
Q

In the presence of ATP there is a ____________ relationship to PFK activity

A

sigmoidal (high Km)

104
Q

Why is AMP used as a signaling molecule over ADP?

A

changes in [AMP] are much larger than ADP

105
Q

How is PFK activity controlled allosterically?

A

by ATP and AMP

106
Q

How is PFK activity controlled by hormones?

A

controlled by insulin, glucagon/epi, F2,6-BP

107
Q

How can the liver control the speed of glycolysis?

A

by controlling the [insulin] put out

108
Q

What is the purpose of the Pentose Phosphate Shunt?

A

produce NADPH and GSH for protection/repair again radicals

109
Q

Where does the oxidative branch come off of glycolysis?

110
Q

Where does the pentose-P branch come off and feed back into glycolysis?

A

in: F6P
out: GAP

111
Q

What is produced in the oxidative branch of PPP?

A

2 NADPH
ribulose-5-phosphate

113
Q

What are the 3 enzymes involved in the oxidative branch?

A
  1. G6PD
  2. glucono lactonase
  3. 6-phospho Gluconate DH
114
Q

How many oxidations are there in the oxidative branch of PPP?

A

2 (2 dehydrogenases)

115
Q

What enzyme in PPP is highly regulated?

116
Q

What enzyme catalyzes the unregulated irreversible reaction in PPP oxidative branch?

A

6-phospho Gluconate DH

117
Q

Is flux through the sugar phosphate branch of PPP regulated?

118
Q

If only the oxidative branch of PPP happened, what is produced?

A

NADPH and Ribulose-5P
(feds back into glycolysis)

119
Q

If only the sugar phosphate branch of PPP happened, what is produced?

A

ribose 5-phosphate

120
Q

If both branches of PPP happened, what is produced?

A

NADPH and ribose-5-P

121
Q

Why does most of the NADPH made in the PPP go to the liver?

A

fatty acid synthesis

122
Q

For red blood cells, what is the only way to make NADPH?

123
Q

How can the liver make NADPH other than PPP?

A

malate –> pyruvate (via malate DH)

124
Q

What is the oxidized and reduced form? (NADP+/NADPH)

A

NADP+: oxidized
NADPH: reduced

125
Q

What is the NADP+/NADPH ratio?

A

smaller (much more NADPH b.c used for repairs)

126
Q

What enzyme catalyzes NADP+/GSSG–>NADPH/GSH?

A

glutathione reductase

127
Q

What does glutathione do? (GSH)

A

protects against free radicals and peroxides

128
Q

What is the GSH/GSSG ratio?

A

large (reduced form favored)

129
Q

What 3 enzymes are involved in GSH detoxifying hydrogen peroxide and superoxide?

A

superoxide dismutase
catalase
GSH reductase (regenerates GSH)

130
Q

What happens if G6PD is deficient?

A

increases oxidative stress b/c oxidative branch of PPP is affected = less NADPH for RBC

131
Q

How can G6PD deficiency be useful?

A

oxidative stress helps protect against malaria

132
Q

________ men and _________ G6PD deficient are protected against malaria

A

hemizygous men
heterozygous

133
Q

What is hemoglobinuria in G6PD deficiencies?

A

bursting of RBC because of oxidative stress (not enough NADPH) causing dark urine

134
Q

What is the reducing end of glycogen and the non-reducing end?

A

reducing: 1’OH
non-reducing: 4’ OH

135
Q

Where is glycogenin located in glycogen?

A

center (tier zero)

136
Q

Glycogen is a polymer of glucose designed for …..

A

rapid mobilization of metabolic fuel

137
Q

Where is most of the glycogen stored?

138
Q

In glycogenesis, is G6P turned into glucose and sent to other tissues?

A

No (you are storing glucose not breaking it down)

139
Q

Is glycogenesis endergonic or exergonic?

A

endergonic (requires E)

140
Q

What are the 4 steps of glycogenesis?

A
  1. activation of glucose
  2. priming of UDP-glucose
  3. extension of chain
  4. branching of chain
141
Q

How is glucose activated in glycogenesis?

A

UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase forms UDP-glucose

142
Q

What enzyme primes UDP-glucose for glycogenesis?

A

glycogenin

143
Q

What enzyme extends the a(1-4) chain in glycogenesis?

A

glycogen synthase

144
Q

What enzyme branches glucose polymers with a 1,6-bond in glycogenesis?

A

branching enzyme

145
Q

What is process in essential for solubility of glycogen?

146
Q

How many glucose are required for glycogen synthase?

147
Q

Is the reducing or non-reducing end of glycogen brokenoff and added to the position 6 of carbon for brnahcing?

A

non-reducing

148
Q

What is different about glycogenolysis in the liver v. muscles?

A

in muscles G6P is not broken down into glucose to send to other tissues while in the liver it sends broken down glucose to feed other tissues

149
Q

___________ feeds muscle contractions

150
Q

Does the liver or muscles release glucose into the blood stream and why?

A

lover b/c it has an insulin and glucagon receptor while muscles have only insulin receptors

151
Q

__________ does not release glucose from glycogen while the liver does

152
Q

What is the only organ that can dephosphorylate glucose and send it into the blood?

153
Q

Is glycogenolysis exergonic or endergonic?

A

exergonic (release energy)

154
Q

What are the 3 steps of glycogenolysis?

A
  1. removal of glucose units
  2. debranching
  3. isomerization of G1P
155
Q

What enzyme removes alpha(1-4) glucose during glycogenolysis?

A

glycogen phosphorylase

156
Q

What enzyme is responsible for debranching glucose in glycogenolysis?

A

glycogen debranching enzyme

157
Q

Glycogen debranching enyzme cannot remove all of the branch leaving a ____________ branch

A

limit branch

158
Q

What enzyme isomerizes G1P –> G6P in glycogenolysis?

A

phosphoglucomutase

159
Q

What happens during the isomerization stage of glycogenolysis?

A

G1P converted into G6P (which further breaks down to glucose)

160
Q

What 2 ways is glycogenolysis regulated?

A
  1. allosteric (intracellular)
  2. hormonal (extracellular)
161
Q

What are 2 key enzymes that regulate glycogen metabolism?

A

glycogen phosphorylase
glycogen synthase

162
Q

How is glycogen regulated by hormones?

A

insulin and epinepherine/glucagon regulate the phosphorylation of glycogen synthase and phosphorylase

163
Q

What are the 3 main substrates glucose can be synthesized (as a carbon scaffolding) from in gluconeogenesis?

A

glycerol
lactate
alanine

164
Q

Does gluconeogenesis require energy?

A

yes (from FA oxidation)

165
Q

What organs do gluconeogenesis?

A

kidney
liver

166
Q

What is the rate of preference for carbon skeletons of gluconeogenesis?

A

lactate > alanine > glycerol

167
Q

Is acetyl-coA a carbon input option for gluconeogenesis?

168
Q

Energy in the form of ATP, GTP, and NADH are provided for gluconeogenesis by…?

A

fatty acid beta oxidation

169
Q

What are the 3 bypasses for gluconeogenesis to get around irreversible reactions?

A

glucokinase bypass
phosphofructokinase bypass
pyruvate kinase bypass

170
Q

What enzyme is for the glucokinase bypass
in gluconeogenesis?

A

glucose-6-phosphatase

171
Q

What enzyme is for the phosphofructokinase bypass
in gluconeogenesis?

A

fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase

172
Q

What 2 enzymes are for the pyruvate bypass in gluconeogenesis?

A

PEP carboxylase
pyruvate carboxylase

173
Q

What gluconeogensis bypass uses 2 enzymes?

A

pyruvate kinase bypass

174
Q

GTPase for gluconeogenesis is present in what organs but absent in _________

A

present: liver, kidney
absent: muscles

175
Q

What is the net cost of gluconeogenesis?

A

4 ATP
2 GTP
2 NADH

176
Q

What is the overall equation of gluconeogenesis?

A

2 pyruvate + 4 ATP + 2 GTP + 2 NADH –> glucose + 4 ADP + 2 GDP + 2 NAD

177
Q

Excessive gluconeogenesis causes ______glycemia

A

hyperglycemia

178
Q

insufficient gluconeogenesis causes ______glycemia

A

hypoglycemia

179
Q

People who have a diabetes have ___excessive/insufficient____ gluconeogenesis?

180
Q

What medication is used to treat hyperglycemia for diabetes?

181
Q

Insufficient gluconeogenesis can be caused from excess ________

182
Q

what enzyme helps pyruvate enter the mitochondria for CAC?

A

pyruvate translocase

183
Q

What has to happen so that pyruvate can be retained in the mitochondria and enter the CAC?

A

oxidized and decarboxylated into acetyl coA

184
Q

What enzyme catalyzes pyruvate turning into acetyl coA?

A

pyruvate DH

185
Q

What are the inputs and outputs of pyruvate DH?

A

input: CoA and NAD+
output: CO2 and NADH

186
Q

What vitamim is in CoA?

A

Vitamin B5

187
Q

What are two ways to regulate pyruvate DH?

A

DIRECTLY: acetyl coA and NADH inhibit
INDIRECTLY: acetly coA and NADH activate Pyruvate DH kinase which then inhibits

188
Q

How may oxidations are there in the CAC (releases energy)?

189
Q

What are the 4 products of oxidations in the CAC?

A

3 NADH
1 FADH
1 GTP

190
Q

What 2 enzymes release CO2 in the CAC?

A

isocitrate DH
a-ketogluterate DH

191
Q

What do all the enzymes that perform oxidations in CAC end in?

A

dehydrogenase

192
Q

What is the overall reaction of the CAC?

A

acetyl-coA + NAD + FAD + GDP + Pi + H2O –> CO2 + NADH + FADH2 + GTP(ATP) + H + CoA

193
Q

___ molecules of CO2 are released from CAC?

194
Q

___ NADH and ___ FADH2 are generated from the CAC?

A

3 NADH
1 FADH2

195
Q

___GDP/ADP are phosphorylated in the CAC?

196
Q

What is FAD made of?

A

flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
adenosine monophosphate (AMP)

197
Q

FMN in FAD is derived from vitamin _____

A

Vitamin B2

198
Q

What 4 reactions drain the CAC?

A
  1. FA synthesis
  2. glutamin from a-ketogluterate
  3. amino acids from succinate
  4. gluconeogeneisis from oxaloacetate
199
Q

What 2 reactions feed the CAC?

A
  1. glutamine from a-ketogluterate
  2. pyruvate carboxylase
200
Q

pyruvate carboxylase is _________ dependent

201
Q

what does pyruvate carboxylase do?

A

converts pyruvate directly into oxaloacetate

202
Q

What is the purpose of pyruvate carboxylase converting pyruvate directly into oxaloacetate?

A

replenishes CAC intermediates

203
Q

What vitamin is a cofactor for biotin?

A

vitamin B7

204
Q

Where is biotin synthesized from?

A

from intestinal microorganisms (fed by diet)

205
Q

What does biotinidase do?

A

recycles biotin

206
Q

What vitamin is essential for pyruvate DH?

A

vitamin B1

207
Q

What 3 reaction require Vitamin B1?

A
  1. pyruvate —-> acetyl coA (via PDH)
  2. a-ketogluterate —> succinyl coA (via a-ketogluterate DH)
  3. GAP —–> R5P (via transketolase)
208
Q

There are 3 reactions that require Vitamin B1, which 2 of the 3 actually impairs ATP production?

A

pyruvate —-> acetyl coA (via PDH)

a-ketogluterate —> succinyl coA (via a-ketogluterate DH)

OLD "MBS 602" (7 decks)

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