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A&P 2 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Hormones

A

-carried by the blood stream
-chemical compounds secreted by endocrine glands

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2
Q

Steroid hormone

A

-lipid soluble
-formed from cholesterol
-produced by gonads and adrenal cortex
-ex: cortisol

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3
Q

Protein hormone

A

-water soluble
-consists of amino acid chains
-3 sub groups
-ex: parathyroid hormone

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4
Q

3 subgroups of protein hormones

A

-polypeptides
-oligopeptides
-glycoproteins

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5
Q

Biogenic amine

A

-water soluble
-derived from amino acid that is modified
-ex: norepinephrine

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6
Q

a hormone will only affect a cell that has a specific ___ for that hormone

A

receptor

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7
Q

agonist

A

chemical that binds a receptor and initiates a biological response

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8
Q

antagonists

A

a chemical that binds a receptor and inhibits a biological response

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9
Q

affinity

A

how tightly a ligand (hormone) binds to a protein (receptor)

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10
Q

efficacy

A

the relative ability of a drug-receptor complex to produce a functional response

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11
Q

half-life

A

the time it takes for a chemical to be removed or deactivated by the body

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12
Q

plasma membrane bound receptors

A

-G-coupled receptors
-receptor tyrosine kinoses
-cytokine receptors

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13
Q

Intracellular receptors

A

steroid-like receptors

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14
Q

G-protein coupled receptors

A

bound to the plasma membrane and allow for signal amplification

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15
Q

Hydrophobic hormones

A

act via intracellular receptors and direct gene activation

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16
Q

Three types of stimuli that can cause hormone secretion

A
  1. humoral stimulus
  2. neural stimulus
  3. hormonal stimulus
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17
Q

Humoral stimulus

A

-hormone release caused by altered levels of certain critical ions or nutrients
-Stimulus: low concentration of Ca2+ in capillary blood
Response: parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which increases blood Ca2+

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18
Q

Neural Stimulus

A

-hormone release caused by neural input
-Stimulus: action potentials in preganglionic sympathetic fibers to adrenal medulla
-Response: adrenal medulla cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine

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19
Q

Hormonal stimulus

A

-hormone release caused by another hormone (a tropic hormone)
-Stimulus: hormones from hypothalamus
-Response: anterior pituitary gland secretes hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete hormones

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20
Q

Feedback loops

A

the main regulatory mechanism for hormone secretion in the endocrine system

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21
Q

Hypothalamus

A

-the master regulator of hormone release
-paraventricular nucleus (PVN)
-supraoptic nucleus (SON)

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22
Q

the pituitary gland lies

A

directly beneath the hypothalamus in the skull

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23
Q

what connects the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus?

A

pituitary stalk/ infundibulum

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24
Q

anterior pituitary

A

-mostly endocrine gland cells: adenohypophysis

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25
Q

Posterior pituitary

A

-mostly axons/terminals: neurohypophysis
-ADH
-oxytocin
-peptide hormones produced in neurons supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus
-“long axon pathway” to posterior pituitary
-hormone released from axon terminals
-small 9 aa peptides with 2 aa difference

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26
Q

How the hypothalamus controls release of hormones from the posterior pituitary gland

A

-Neuroendocrine cells
1. Hypothalamic neurons synthesize oxytocin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
2. Oxytocin and ADH are transported down the axons of the hypothalamic hypophyseal tract
3. Oxytocin and ADH are stored in axon terminals in the posterior pituitary
4. When associated hypothalamic neurons fire, action potentials arriving at the axon terminals cause oxytocin or ADH to be released into the blood

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27
Q

How the hypothalamus controls release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland: hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system

A
  1. hypothalamic neurons secrete releasing and inhibiting hormones into the hypothalamic capillary bed
  2. Hormones travel through portal veins in the infundibulum
  3. hypothalamic hormones exit the anterior pituitary capillary bed to bind to receptors on anterior pituitary cells
  4. hypothalamic hormones stimulate or inhibit secretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary cells
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28
Q

Hormones controlled by the hypothalamus

A

-TSH
-PRL
-FSH
-LH
-GH
-ACTH

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29
Q

Multi-tiered negative feedback loop

A

-controls hormone release
1. hypothalamus releases hormones
2. anterior pituitary releases hormones
3. target organs release hormones
-effects: hormone levels increase and effects on other cells-return to normal range

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30
Q

pituitary hormones activate__

A

target gland hormone production

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31
Q

hormones from target glands regulate__

A

target tissue and provide feedback to pituitary and/or hypothalamus

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32
Q

Anti-diuretic hormone

A

-ADH- vasopressin
-diuresis: water retention
-antidiuresis: water retention
-increases water absorption at kidey
-increases thirst
-vasoconstriction increases BP

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33
Q

3 triggers for ADH release

A
  1. low BP
  2. low BV
  3. high blood osmolarity (dehydration)
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34
Q

Oxytocin

A

-GPCR activation causes smooth muscle contractions in mammary gland ducts and for wall of uterus
-in CNS: appears important for social-behavioral

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35
Q

Anterior pituitary hormones are controlled by___

A

releasing/inhibiting hormones for hypothalamus

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36
Q

Growth hormone (GH)

A

-anabolic hormone that has metabolic and growth promoting actions
-GHRH
-GHIH

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37
Q

GHRH

A

-GH releasing hormone
-produced by anterior pituitary somatotropin cells
-function is to regulate and control growth
-anabolic hormone builds macromolecules
-target tissues of GH pathway include muscle, adipose, liver, cartilage, and bone
-direct and indirect effects

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38
Q

direct effects of GH

A

-adipose: stimulate lipolysis, decrease glucose uptake
-liver: increases gluconeogenosis, increases IGF production
-muscle: stimulates aa uptake/protein synthesis, decreases glucose uptake

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39
Q

indirect effects of GH (from IGF signaling)

A

-increase organ size and function
-stimulate linear bone growth

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40
Q
A
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41
Q

Growth hormone disorders

A

-GH hypersecretion: gigantism and acromegaly
-GH hyposecretion: pituitary dwarfism

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42
Q

Prolactin (PRL)

A

-stimulates milk production in females
-tonic release in both males and females
-release is primarily controlled by inhibitory hormone from hypothalamus, prolactin inhibitory hormone (PIH, dopamine)

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43
Q

Lactotrophs

A

-in anterior pituitary release prolactin
-females: target mammillary glands by increasing milk production, suckling inhibits PIH to increase milk production

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44
Q

Gonadotropins

A

-FSH
-LH
-regulate function of the gonads

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45
Q

Hypothalamic gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)

A

-stimulates anterior pituitary gonadotroph cells

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46
Q

gonadotrophs

A

produce and secrete FSH/LH

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47
Q

Female gonadotropins

A

-FSH promotes ovarian follicle/egg maturation and estrogen production
-LH surge triggers ovulation and release of ovarian hormones
-estrogen/progesterone provide negative feedback to anterior pituitary and hypothalamus

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48
Q

Male gonadotropins

A

-FSH stimulates tetes to induce spermatogenesis
-LH stimulates testes to produce testosterone
-testosterone provides negative feedback to anterior pituitary and hypothalamus

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49
Q

thyroid gland location

A

-in the anterior neck
-wraps around anterior and lateral trachea
-inferior to larynx
-adjacent to common carotid arteries, internal jugular veins, vagus nerve

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50
Q

Anatomy of the thyroid glands

A

-consists of 2 lobes connected across midline by the isthmus
-follicle cells: enclose follice
-parafollicular cells: between follicles

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51
Q

thyroid follicles produce__

A

-thyroid hormone
-microscopic spheres: thyroid follicles
-bounded by follicle cells that produce thyroid hormone
-interior follicle filled with a sticky glycoprotein called colloid which is the storage form of the thyroid hormone

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52
Q

TH

A

-thyroid hormone
-major metabolic hormone released into circulation as T3 and T4

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53
Q

process of thyroid hormone

A
  1. hypothalamus releases TRH: thyrotropin releasing hormone
  2. anterior pituitary releases TSH: thyroid stimulating hormone
  3. thyroid follicles produce thyroid hormone in response to TSH (T3 and T4)
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54
Q

3 major biological effects of TH

A

-regulation of metabolic rate and thermoregulation
-promotion of growth and development
-synergism with sympathetic nervous system

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55
Q

Role of iodide and thyroglobulin

A
  1. iodide ions and thyroglobulin are secreted into the colloid
  2. iodide ions are converted to iodine atoms that attach to thyroglobulin
  3. iodinated thyroglobulin enters the follicle cell by endocytosis and is converted to T3 and T4 by lysosomal enzymes
  4. T3 and T4 are released into the blood
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56
Q

How T3 and T4 are released from the thyroid gland

A

-iodinated tyrosine bound to thyroglobulin in colloid
-pulled from colloid into cell and cleaved from thyroglobulin
-TH’s bind to thyroid-binding globulin for transport
-~90% hormone produced is T4

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57
Q

__ is the form of TH with the greatest biological activity

A

T3
-amino acids are non-polar and hydrophobic, allowing thyroid hormone to act like a steroid hormone

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58
Q

3 categories of physiological effects of TH

A

-regulation of metabolic rate and thermoregulation (BMR)
-promotion of growth and development
-synergism with sympathetic nervous system

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59
Q

basal metabolic rate

A

amount of energy required at rest

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60
Q

Regulation of TH

A

-Stimulus: decreased levels of free T3 and T4 in the blood or exposure to cold
-Receptor: receptors in hypothalamus detect change
-1st tier control: hypothalamus secretes TRH
-2nd tier control: anterior pituitary secrete TSH
-3rd tier control: thyroid gland is stimulated to produce and secrete T3 and 4 into the blood, and also to grow and develop
-effects: increased levels of T3 and T4 in the blood, increased metabolic rate

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61
Q

hypothyroidism

A

-BMR falls to 40% of normal
-poor memory, lethargic, listless, poor cold tolerance, goiter
-iodide deficiency= can’t make functional TH but pituitary keeps stimulating (high TSH circulating)

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62
Q

hashimoto’s disease

A

autoimmune antibodies destroy thyroid gland (high levels TSH)

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63
Q

hyperthyroidism

A

-BMR 10-100% above normal
-nervousness. fine tremor, weight loss, insatiable eating, increased pulse pressure, heat intolerant, sweating, goiter (enlarged thyroid gland)

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64
Q

grave’s disease

A

autoimmune antibodies activate TSH receptors resulting in increased T3/T4 production (low TSH circulatin)

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65
Q

3 hormones that control calcium balance

A

-parathyroid hormone (PTH)
-Calcitrol (vitamin D3)
-Calcitonin: parafollicular cells of thyroid gland

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66
Q

3 sites of hormone action

A
  1. bone: larger reservoir of body calcium
  2. kidney: site of calcium excretion
  3. gut/GI tract: site of calcium absorption
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67
Q

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

A

-increases plasma Ca2+ concentration
-PTH mobilizes Ca2+ from bone
-PTH enhances renal reabsorption of Ca2+
-PTH indirectly increases intestinal absorption of Ca2+

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68
Q

Calcitrol (D3)

A

-facillitates the intestinal absorption of calcium
-synthesized from vitamin D in body
-2 steps: first in liver, second in kidney (requires PTH)
-main hormone that facilitates absorption of calcium from intestine
-helps renal absorption and mobilization from bone

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69
Q

Calcitonin

A

-reduces plasma calcium concentrations
-produced by thyroid gland parafollicular cell (c cells)
-decrease blood calcium, opposite to PTH and calcitrol
-inhibits activity of osteoclasts allowing for unopposed bone growth

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70
Q

___ and ____ are main hormones regulating blood calcium concentration

A

parathyroid hormone and calcitrol

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71
Q

Anterior pituitary coricotroph cells

A

regulate hormones from the adrenal gland

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72
Q

Adrenal Gland

A

made up of the outer adrenal cortex and the inner adrenal medulla

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73
Q

Adrenal cortex

A

-an endocrine gland with 3 continuous layers
-Zona glomerulosa
-Zona fasciculata
-zona reticularis

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74
Q

adrenal medula

A

-secretes the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine under control of the sympathetic nervous

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75
Q

Zona glomerulosa

A

-produces mineralocorticoids including aldosterone

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76
Q

Mineralocorticoids

A

-regulates electrolyte balance
-maintaining chemical gradients is critical to cellular function
changes in Na+ can alter BP
-changes in K+ can change resting membrane potential in neurons

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77
Q

Primary mechanisms of aldosterone secretion

A

-renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism (RAAS)
-plasma K+ concentrationS

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78
Q

Secondary mechanisms of aldosterone secretion

A

-adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from anterior pituitary
-atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) from atria in response to high atrial stretch (increase in BP)

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79
Q

Cortisol

A

-mediates the body response to stress primarily by regulating the concentration of blood glucose
-produced by the zona reticularis and zona glucocorticoids
-lipophilic, can enter cells
-binds to cystolic glucocorticoid (steroid) receptors (GR)
-complex acts as transcription factor to activate or repress genes on a variety of tissues

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80
Q

cortisol secretion is controlled by

A

hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

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81
Q

Metabolic cortisol actions

A

-metabolic-liver: stimulates gluconeogenesis
-fat: stimulates lipolysis, inhibits glucose storage as fat
-muscle: stimulates protein catabolism (amino acids for glucogenesis, inhibits glucose uptake)

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82
Q

Vascular cortisol actions

A

enhances adrenergic receptors (epinephrine) function to maintain vascular tone and pressure

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83
Q

Anti-inflammatory/immunosupressive cortisol actions

A

-stress increases inflammatory mediators -> tissue damage
-cortisol inhibits inflammatory agents
-reduces T lymphocytes/interferon production, decreases antibody production
-important in inhibitation of transplant rejection

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84
Q

chronic stress or medication cortisol actions

A

-centripital (trunk) obesity
-muscle wasting and thin skin from connective tissue loss
-increased infections from immune supression
-bone reabsorption/loss: osteoperosis
-sodium reabsorption and potassium loss

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85
Q

Cushings disease

A

-excess cortisol
-results from tumor in cortisol producing cells
-iatrogenic cushings syndrome results from long-term administration of corticosteroids
-symptoms: elevated blood glucose, loss of muscle and bone, water and salt retention: hypertension + edema, poor wound healing

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86
Q

Addisons disease

A

-results from hyposecretion of cortisol and aldosterone
-deficits in glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
-symptoms: weight loss, plasma sodium and glucose levels decrease, potassium levels go up, dehydration and hypotension

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87
Q

Androgens

A

-male sex hormone
-produced by adrenal cortex
-weak androgens that are converted to testosterone
-small amount compares to gonads

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88
Q

Exocrine pancreas

A

acinar cells produce digestive enzymes and buffer

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89
Q

Endocrine pancreas

A

islets of langerhans cells produce hormones

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90
Q

pancreatic islets

A

-produces insulin and glucagon
-alpha: cells (20%) secrete peptide hormone glucagon
-beta: cells (80%) secrete peptide hormone insulin

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91
Q

Glucagon

A

-promotes reactions that increase blood levels of glucose
-extremely potent hyperglycemic agent
-primary target is the liver
-breakdown of glycogen to glucose (glucogenolysis)
-formation of new glucose (glucogenesis)
-increases lipolysis
-release of amino acids from muscle tissue

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92
Q

insulin

A

-promotes reactions that decrease blood levels of glucose, promote protein synthesis and fat storage
-primary targets are liver,muscles, adipose tissue, brain
-inhibits breakdown of glycogen to glucose
-inhibits conversion of amino acids or fats to glucose
-

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93
Q

How does an islet cell know to reduce insulin?

A

-increase in blood glucose results in glucose entry into B-cells through the Glut2 glucose transporter
-cellular glucose metabolism results in increase ATP
-increase in ATP inhibits intracellular K+ efflux
-increase in cellular results in cell depolarization and calcium entry
-increased intracellular calcium stimulates insulin release from secretory granules

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94
Q

Insulin causes glucose uptake into muscle and fat cells by

A

regulating insertion of GLUT4 transporters

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95
Q

Insulin regulates glucose movement at liver cells by

A

regulating bidirectional GLUT2 transports

96
Q

the skin is composed of

A

epidermis and dermis

97
Q

epidermis

A

keratinized stratified squamous epithelial resting on basement membrane

98
Q

dermis

A

-loose and dense irregular connective tissue
-deep to the epidermis

99
Q

hypodermis

A

loose connective and adipose tissue

100
Q

functions of the integumentary system

A
  1. protection: mechanical trauma, invasion of pathogens
  2. sensation: sensory receptors
  3. thermoregulation: maintenance of internal body temperatures through negative feedback loops
    -excretion: waste products lost through sweat
  4. Vitamin D synthesis: UV light reaction with modified cholesterol to produce cholecalciferol
101
Q

keratinocytes

A

-main cell type in skin
-production of keratin
-desmosomes anchor cells to neighbors

102
Q

melanocytes

A

synthesize melanin

103
Q

dendritic (langerhans) cell

A

-phagocytose foreign substances
-activate immune system

104
Q

Merkel (tactile) cells

A

-sensory receptor for touch
-associated with sensory nerve endings

105
Q

Stratum basale

A

-deepest layer attached to dermis
-closest to blood supply
-youngest keratinocytes
-single row of stem cells continually dividing

106
Q

stratum spinosum

A

-several layers thick
-systems of intermediate filaments of spanning cytosol and connecting to desmosomes
-contains dendritic cells

107
Q

stratum granulosum

A

-1-5 cells thick
-initiate keratinizations-flatten, nuclei and organelles disintegrate
-prominent cytoplasmic granules
-keratohyalin granules
-lamellar granules
-epidermal wastes barrier

108
Q

keratohyalin granules

A

help to form keratin

109
Q

lamellar granules

A

contain water-resistant glycolipid

110
Q

stratum lucidum

A

-thin translucent band
-transition region between s. granulosum and s. corneum
-cut off from nutrients

111
Q

stratum corneum

A

-anucleate keratinocytes
-outermost layer: protection against abrasions and penetration
-glycolipid from lamellar granules creates near waterproof layer
-callus formation-repeated pressure

112
Q
A
113
Q

skin layers are held together by

A

desmosomes and hemidesmosomes

114
Q

papillary layer

A

-20% thickness
-loose areolar connect
-dermal papillae
-meissner corpuscle, free nerve endings, capillaries extended up under epidermis
-blisters form between epidermis and papillary layer

115
Q

dermal papillae

A

raised areas of papillary layer

116
Q

reticular layer

A

-(80% of thickness)
-dense irregular connective tissue
-collagen and elastic fibers
-striae-stretch marks due to this layer
-blood vessels and accessory structures

117
Q

epidermal ridges

A

-form fingerprints
-in thermal skin dermal papillae are arranged on top of dermal ridges
-dermal ridges indent epidermis forming epidermal ridges
-provide enhanced grip

118
Q

cleavage lines

A

gaps in the bundles of collagen fibers in the dermis

119
Q

flexure lines

A

-dermal folds that occur at or near a joint

120
Q

melanin pigment

A

-ranges from orange to black
-synthesized from tyrosine: rate of synthesis increased by UV radiation
-packaged into melanosomes and delivered to keratinocytes
-melanin absorbs UV radiation to protect keratinocyte DNA

121
Q

Carotene

A

accumulates in stratum corneum of thick skin giving a yellow-orange pigment

122
Q

hemoglobin

A

crimson color of oxygenated blood

123
Q

accessory structures of the skin

A

-nails
-hair
-glands (sweat+sebaceous)

124
Q

Nails

A

-scale-like modifications of the epidermis
-hard keratin
-nail matrix: nail growth
-clinical indicator of health

125
Q

yellow tinge of nails

A

respiratory or thyroid disorder

126
Q

thickened yellow of nails

A

fungal disorder

127
Q

concavity of nails

A

iron deficiency

128
Q

horizontal lines in nails

A

malnutrition

129
Q

Hair

A

-consists of dead, keratinized cells
-insulates the head
-grows within follicle
-hair grows from bulb

130
Q

hair shaft

A

above the surface

131
Q

hair root

A

below the surface

132
Q

3 concentric layers of hair

A

-medulla, cortex, cuticle
-dermis brings blood supply to bulb
-movement of hair stimulates sensory nerve endings in bulb

133
Q

arrector pili

A

smooth muscle pulls on root to lift hair shaft

134
Q

Sebaceous glands

A

-secrete sebum
-found in skin everywhere except palms and soles
-most are outgrowths of hair follicles
-contractions force sebum out to lubricate hair

135
Q

sweat glands release sweat through

A

ducts

136
Q

eccrine sweat glands

A

-more abundant
-duct extends to pore at skin surface
-merocrine secretion of sweat
-sweat is 99% water its also made of salt, waste, and antibodies
-sympathetic regulation

137
Q

apocrine sweat glands

A

-axillary and anogenital
-duct empties into hair follicle
-merocrine secretion of sweat with fatty substances and protein
-bacteria on skin produce odor
-sympathetic regulation

138
Q

ABCDE rule

A

-asymmetry
-borders
-color
-diameter
-evolution

139
Q

pathogens

A

agents that cause disease
-microorganisms, bacteria, fungi, viruses, single cell protozoans, parasites

140
Q

abnormal “self” cells

A

body cells that have been invaded by virus or become cancerous

141
Q

what provides the first line of defense?

A

skin and mucosa

142
Q

intact skin epidermis

A

-acid mantle of skin
-keratin

143
Q

intact mucous membranes

A

-mucus
-nasal hairs
-cilia
-gastric juice

144
Q

protective chemicals

A

-lysozyme
-defensins
-dermcidin
-mucin

145
Q

lysozyme

A

enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls

146
Q

defensins

A

antimicrobial peptide

147
Q

dermcidin

A

antimicrobial protein

148
Q

mucin

A

form mucus in digestive and respiratory pathways

149
Q

leukocytes

A

-WBCs
-primary cells responsible for the immune response
-granulocytes and agranulocytes

150
Q

Granulocytes

A

-neutrophil
-eosinophil
-basophil

151
Q

agranulocytes

A

-monocyte
-lymphocyte

152
Q

chemotaxis

A

cell movement in an amoeboid fashion following a chemical gradient

153
Q

phagocytosis

A

the process of engulfing and ingesting a target pathogen
-cells that do this are phagocytes (neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, B lymphocytes)

154
Q

antigen-presenting cells

A

cells that display fragments of foreign proteins in their cell surface
-macrophage/monocyte, dendritic cells, B lymphocytes

155
Q

cytoxic cells

A

attack and directly kill pathogens
-eosinophils and some lymphocytes, NK cells and T cells

156
Q

phagocytes

A

-can ingest foreign pathogens by phagocytosis
-phagocytic cell recognizes something as foreign
-binds to it and engulfs it in membrane vesicle: “phagosome”
-phagosome fuses with lysosome in cell
-enzymes from lysosome digest engulfed material

157
Q

opsonization

A

makes pathogens more visible to phagocyte cells

158
Q

opsonins

A

molecules like compliment proteins of antibodies that stick to foreign material
-phagocytes then recognize opsonin

159
Q

antigen presentation

A

-digested fragments of pathogen are bound to protein on plasma membrane
-alerts other immune cells to presence of foreign material

160
Q

Natural killer cells

A

-type of lymphocyte
-provide rapid response to virus infected cells and tumor cells
-less picky about cellular targets compared to other lymphocytes in adaptive immune system

161
Q

actions of natural killer cells

A

-activated only by abnormal cells
-altered balance of normal to abnormal signals
-kills unhealthy cells (cytoxic)
-secrete preforins, punch holes in target cell membrane
-secrete granzymes, enter perferations and trigger opposite in target cells
-secrete interferons and pro-inflammatory chemicals
-activate other immune system activities

162
Q

Inflamation

A

hallmark reaction of the innate immune system

163
Q

4 cardinal signs of inflammation

A

-redness
-heat
-swelling
-pain

164
Q

role of histamine prostaglandin in inflammation

A

-produced from mast cells, most important chemical causing inflammation
-increases capillary permeability
-attracts/activate other immune cells
-increase sensitivity of pain fibers

165
Q

common drugs to prevent inflammation

A

-antihistamines block histamine receptors
-aspirin and ibuprofen block prostaglandin synthesis

166
Q

what is the second stage of the inflammatory response?

A

phagocyte mobilization

167
Q

leukocytosis

A

increase in release and production of neutrophils in the red bone marrow

168
Q

margination

A

interaction between cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) on vessel walls and neutrophils

169
Q

diapedesis

A

WBCs squeeze through capillary wall

170
Q

positive chemotaxis

A

neutrophils reach inflamed area first and monocytes follow (differentiate into macrophages)

171
Q

interferons

A

-antimicrobial protein
-help protect unaffected cells from virus
-virus invades healthy cell and uses its cell machinery to make new virus
-interferon protein is packaged into secretory granules and released by exocytosis
-neighboring cells bind interferon which stimulates them to “beef up” their defenses

172
Q

compliment proteins

A

-antimicrobial protein
-plasma proteins that help destroy pathogens
-“compliments” the innate and adaptive immune systems in 3 ways

173
Q

3 ways the compliment proteins affect the innate and immune systems

A

-opsonization
-enhance inflammation
-insertion of MAC into membranes inducing cell lysis

174
Q

fever

A

a systematic response to invading microorganisms

175
Q

pyrogens

A

released from damaged cells, raise body temp

176
Q

3 important aspects of adaptive immunity

A

-specific
-systemic
-has memory

177
Q

antigens

A

substances that trigger the adaptive immune system

178
Q

functional properties of complete antigens

A

-immunogenicity
-reactivity

179
Q

immunogenicity

A

the ability to stimulate specific lymphocytes to proliferate

180
Q

reactivity

A

the ability to react with activated lymphocytes and released antibodies

181
Q

self antigens

A

produced by bodies own cells

182
Q

non-self antigens

A

produced by bacteria, virus, or from substances outside the body

183
Q

B lymphocytes

A

-part of adaptive immune system
-become plasma cells
-recognize an antigen if they have a surface receptor for that particular antigen
-stay in red bone marrow and begin maturation there before being released into general circulation

184
Q

T lymphocytes

A

-CD-4
-CD-8
-recognize an antigen if they have a surface receptor for that particular antigen
-migrate to the thymus gland to mature there before being released into fciruclation

185
Q

Each lymphocyte makes ___ particular antigen receptor, but has many copies of that receptor on its surface

A

one

186
Q

immunocompetence

A

lymphocyte must be able to recognize one specific antigen
-each B or T cell will display a unique surface receptor
-MHC proteins are expressed by all cells

187
Q

Self-tolerance

A

must be unresponsive to self-antigen
-failure to ignore normal body cells leads to autoimmune diseases

188
Q

naive

A

when a cell hasn’t been exposed to a foreign antigen

189
Q

Activation of B lymphocytes

A

-b lymphocyte is activated if its surface receptor binds to the antigen specific for that receptor
-some clone cells differentiate into plasma cells which make millions of antibodies
-other clone cells go dormant as memory B cells

190
Q

humoral immunity

A

-in body fluids
-b lymphocyte activation leads to production of antibodies
-can be active, passive, natural, or artificially aquired

191
Q

memory b cells

A

provide and enhanced response in a second exposure to an antigen

192
Q

antibody structure

A

-4 polypeptide chains (2 light 2 heavy)
-fab region (variable)
-fc region (constant region)

193
Q

Fab region of an antibody

A

-variable region
-forms antigen binding sites and confer specificity for a unique antigen
-2 binding sites per antibody

194
Q

Fc region of an antibody

A

-constant region
-the same for a given class of antibodies
-dictate the type of cell the antibody can bind to
-dictates how the antibody functions to eliminate antigens

195
Q

immunoglobins

A

-5 functional classes of antibodies
-class dictated by Fc region
-IgG most abundant in plasma
-IgD are found on B cell surface

196
Q

cell-mediated immunity

A

-t lymphocytes only recognized antigens presented by other body cells
-MHC protein on cell of the surface of a body cell is specific to an individual person and are the basis of tissue matching in organ donation

197
Q

T cells recognize

A

both MHC and its antigen

198
Q

T cell education in the thymus

A

immunocompetence and self tolerance

199
Q

positive selection

A

if T cells can recognize the self-MHC proteins on thymus cells

200
Q

negative selection

A

T cells survive if they ignore self antigens

201
Q

CD4

A

-type of T lymphocyte
-T helper cells
-interact with class II MHC on antigen-presenting cells

202
Q

CD8

A

-type of T lymphocyte
-cytotoxic T cells
-interact with class I MHC on antigen-presenting cells

203
Q

Class I Major Histocompatibility complex

A

-found on all nucleated human cells
-all cells synthesize proteins and recycle them, the fragments are then displayed on cell surface
-healthy cell: “self antigen”
-unhealthy cell: “non self antigen”

204
Q

Class II major histocompatibility complex

A

-found primarily on antigen presenting cells
-phagocytic cells engulf and digest pathogens and display fragments

205
Q

major antigen presenting cells

A

marophages, dendritic cells, b lymphocytes

206
Q

T cell activation requires

A

MHC/antigen recognition and co-stimulation
-co stimulatory molecules are only present when cells are abnormal or pathogens are detected

207
Q

CD8 T cell activation forms

A

cytoxic T cells
-naive CD8 cells are activated when they encounter abnormal body cells

208
Q

clone formation of CD8 lymphocytes leads to

A

-cytoxic T cells
-memory Tc cells

209
Q

activated T cells release..

A

cytokines
-signaling molecules influencing activity of immune cells

210
Q

Cytoxic T cells are the only T cell that can…

A

directly attack and kill abnormal cells

211
Q

2 proteins that release from Tc cell and induce cell death

A

-preforins
-granzymes

212
Q

immune surveillance

A

when cytoxic T cells work in tandem with natural killer cells
-NK cells interact with cells that cease to display MHC I
-Cytoxic T cells cannot see cells without MHC I

213
Q

CD4 T cell activation forms

A

Helper T cells

214
Q

clone formation of CD4 leads to…

A

-helper T cells
-memory Th cells

215
Q

What is required for full humoral immunity response?

A

Th cell activation of B cells

216
Q

What is a more efficient mechanism to activate Tc cells?

A

cytokines from Th activating them

217
Q

lymphatic system

A

-returns leaked fluids to the cardiovasculatory system
-network of lymphatic vessels
-lymph
-lymph nodes

218
Q

lymphoid organs and tissues

A

-structural basis of immune system
-spleen, thymus, tonsils, lymph nodes, MALT

219
Q

lymphatic vessels

A

-excess interstitial fluid is collected
-more fluid is pushed out than in
-fluid = lymph

220
Q

lymphatic capillaries

A

-highly permeable
-overlapping endothelial cells
-collagen filaments tie overlapping “flaps” to surrounding connective tissues
-fluid and solutes enter, including bid proteins, cells, bacteria

221
Q

capillary flaps close when

A

interstitial pressure < lymphatic pressure

222
Q

capillary flaps open when

A

interstitial pressure is > than lymphatic pressure

223
Q

flow of lymph

A

-returned to the blood near the heart
-collecting vessels –> lymphatic trunks –> lymphatic ducts
-lymph empties into subclavian vein close to heart
-right lymphatic duct drains upper right quandrant

224
Q

lymphoid tissue

A

-contains cells of innate and adaptive defenses
-B lymphocytes
-T lymphocytes
-antigen presenting cells (macrophage, dendritic cells)di

225
Q

diffuse lymphoid tissue

A

no apparent pattern to arrangement of lymphoid tissue

226
Q

lymphoid follicles

A

-solid, spherical bodies packed with lymphoid cells and reticular fibers
-lighter central area= germinal center with dividing B cells and plasma cells

227
Q

primary lymphoid organs

A

-where B+T lymphocytes mature
-thalamus, red bone marrow

228
Q

secondary lymphoid organs

A

-where mature lymphocytes first encounter antigens and are activated

229
Q

thymus

A

-genertes immunocompetent T lymphocytes
-no follicles, lack B cells
-does not directly fight antigens

230
Q

spleen

A

-site of lymphocyte proliferation, immune surveillance, and blood cleansing
-largest lymphoid organs
-filters blood

231
Q

white pulp

A

-spleen
-immune function
-composed of lymphocytes suspended on reticular fibers
-forms cuffs around central arteries

232
Q

red pulp

A

-where worn out RBC’s and blood borne pathogens are destroyed by macrophage

233
Q

lymph nodes

A

-clusters of lymphatic tissue located along lymphatic vessels
-hundreds embedded in connective tissue
-clusters in axillae, cervical, inguinal, and mesenteric regions
-filters the lymph

234
Q

functions of lymph nodes

A

-cleansing the lymph-mcarophages in the node
-immune system activation-site of lymphocyte antigen interactions

235
Q

lymph node structures

A

-capsule, cortex, and medulla regions

236
Q

flow of lymph through lymph node

A

-lymph flows into node through afferent lymphatic vessels
-flows through cortex, filled with lymphoid follicles
-B cells, T cells, macrophage, and dendritic cells diffusely distributed in cortex and medulla
-lymph flows out efferent lymphatic vessels
-lymph is screened by lymphocytes and phagocytic cells as it travels one way through the lymph node

237
Q

MALT

A

-mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues
-collection of lymphoid tissue clustered in areas prone to pathogen exposure
-found in GI tract
-tonsils, preyers patches, appendix
-composed of spherical clusters of lymphoid follicles (B cells)

A&P 2 (2 decks)

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