Exam 2 Flashcards
Social Norms
learned social rules
-help establish and maintain social order
-mindlessly following norms could be problematic
descriptive norm
how people are behaving- what we are ‘actually’ doing
Injunctive Norms
what is acceptable and unacceptable-what we should be doing
Loose vs tight norms
Tight cultures have strong social norms and little tolerance for deviance, while loose cultures have weak social norms and are highly permissive
conformity
a change in behavior or beliefs to agree with others
Informational influence
conformity from accepting evidence provided by other people
-Motivated by desire to be accurate
-Look to motivate when we don’t know the right answer
Normative influence
conformity based on a desire to fulfill others’ expectations
-Motivated by the desire to be accepted
higher conformity occurs if there is:
large group size, cohesive groups, high status members, people respond publicly
lower conformity occurs if there is:
1 dissenter, people make a public commitment to position
Ideomotor action
thinking about a behavior makes it happen more likely
Norm of reciprocity
expectation that people will help those who have helped them
Door-in-the-face technique
Asking for a larger favor first and then retreating to a smaller favor
Reciprocation: “meeting someone halfway”
That’s-not-all technique
once a product has been pitched, the seller then adds an additional offer before the potential purchaser has made a decision. “If you buy this, we will also throw in this for free!”
Foot-in-the-door techniques
Willingness to comply with a larger request after first complying with a smaller request
-We like consistency
Negative State Relief Hypothesis
-Seeing someone in distress makes us feel bad
-We help to eliminate our own negative feelings
Reciprocation
Norm of reciprocity- the expectation that people will help those who have helped them. Without a gift only 18% of people donate, but that doubles to 35% when they get a gift
6 principles of Persuasion
- Reciprocity
- Commitment
- Social proof
- Liking
- Authority
- Scarcity
commitment
desire to maintain consistency in what you’ve already said or done
social proof
desire to follow the lead of those who are similar to you
liking
desire to agree with a person who resembles you or shares the same values
authority
Desire to trust and agree with an “expert” based on visual cues (lab coat, uniform, power)
Scarcity
Desire to get something that is limited or difficult to obtain (time, quantity, or space)
Obedience
a change in behavior or beliefs as a result of the commands of others in authority
Milgram’s study
- “The effects of punishment on memory”
- Word pair memorization task
○ Machine 15 volts to 450 volts - “teacher”: delivers painful electric shocks to the learner for innocent answers
- “learner”: a middle-aged man with a heart condition (confederate)
Reactance
A motive to protect or restore one’s sense of freedom. Arises when someone threatens our freedom of action
Social facilitation
concluded that the mere presence of others can enhance performance
Dominate responses
responses that are likely to occur in a situation (habits, responses that are automatic)
-Easy or well-learned tasks -> the dominant response is usually correct
-Difficult or novel tasks-> The dominant response is not necessarily correct
Zajonc’s model of social facilitation
the presence of others increases arousal. Arousal increases dominate responding
-Enhancing performance on simple or well-learned tasks
-Worsening performance on complex or new tasks
The mere presence of others effect
???
Evaluation apprehension
Concerns for how others are viewing us
-Good-looking woman and the jogger study- wanted to see if the women sped up if they passed her. The men sped up and ran faster when the woman was facing the trail compared to when she was faced away from the trail
Distraction-conflict hypothesis
The conflict between paying attention to others and paying attention to the task
Overloads our cognitive resources and leads to arousal
Social loafing
The tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts towards a common goal than when they are individually accountable
Diffusion of responsibility
tendency for each group member to dilute personal responsibility for acting by spreading it among all other group members
How to eliminate social loafing
make people accountable, task harder, goals important to all, provide consequences for success/failure
Groupthink
the deterioration of group judgment produced by striving for consensus
Symptoms of groupthink
The illusion of invulnerability -“we’re good ppl and good decision-makers, we can’t make a bad decision”, Unquestioned belief in group’s morality “we’re going to make a good and moral decision”, Rationalization, Stereotyped view of opponent, Conformity pressure, Self-censorship, Mindguard, Illusion of unanimity
How can we prevent groupthink?
Be important thing is to reach the best decision, Have a devil’s advocate, Subdivide the group the feeling of unanimity, and Encourage and welcome criticism from outsiders, Before implementing, call a second-chance meeting
Self-censorship
refraining from expressing something (such as a thought, POV, or belief) that others could deem objectionable
Illusion of unanimity
Members of the group falsely perceive that everyone agrees with the group’s decision; silence is seen as consent.
Illusion of invulnerability
Members of the group ignore obvious danger, are overly optimistic and are willing to take extraordinary risks.
Collective rationalization
Members of the group develop rationalizations to explain away any warning that is contrary to the group’s thinking.
Deindividuation
When in groups, people often abandon normal restraint
-Lost sense of self-awareness and responsibility
-Group fosters anonymity and draws attention
Self-awareness theory
when we focus on ourselves, we evaluate and compare our current beh
Spotlight effect
which people tend to believe they are being noticed more than they are. Being that one is constantly in the center of one’s world, an accurate evaluation of how much one is noticed by others is uncommon.
determinates of leadership
manipulation, knowledge, socially adept
Approach/inhibition theory
-high power individuals pursue personal goals and make quick judgments
-low power individuals constrain personal behaviors and pay careful attention to others
Outgroup homogeneity effect
members of the outgroup are perceived as more similar to one another
Social roles
shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave. Think of the prison experiment, do the people make the place bad or does the place make the people bad?
Communal relationship
relationship in which the individuals feel a special responsibility for one another and give and receive according to the principle of need, such relationships are often long-term
Exchange Relationship
relationship in which individuals feel little responsibility toward one another, giving and receiving are governed by concerns about equity and reciprocity, such relationships are usually short-term
Social exchange theory
People make decisions about their relationship by weighing rewards and costs (rational or economic model of relationship
Equity theory
idea that people are motivated to pursue fairness or equity in their relationships
*benefits are proportionate to the effort both people put into it
Attachment theory
- Humans are born with few survival skills (unlike other mammals)
- Survival depends on close relationships with parents
- Early attachments to our primary caregivers shape our relationships for the rest of our lives
Attachment styles
-Anxiety-fear of rejection, abandonment
- Avoidance- uncomfortable with intimacy
-Secure- low in anxiety and avoidance
Relationship of non-heterosexual or non-monogamy couples
Non-heterosexual or non-monogamous couples face unique relationship dynamics and challenges related to sexual orientation, gender identity, and relationship structures. These relationships can vary widely in terms of communication, commitment, and negotiation of boundaries and expectations.
Propinquity effect
the more we see and interact with people the more likely we are to start a relationship with them -working together, going to school together, living by each other (doesn’t have to be romantic relationships)
functional distance
the closeness between places in terms of interaction opportunities
Mere exposure effect
The tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after being repeatedly exposed to a person
Contrast effect
if we are exposed to a very attractive person, we begin to view others (and even ourselves) as less attractive
Matching hypothesis
We tend to choose partners those who are a match in attractiveness and others qualities
Maximization strategies
we seek the most attractive partners possible, leading to matching through the process of elimination
Equalization strategies
we seek partners who are about as attractive as we are
Complementary hypothesis
tendency for people to seek out others with characteristics that are different from and complement their own
Halo effect
The belief that physically attractive people have a wide range of positive characteristics
Reciprocal liking
We like those who like us. “I overheard you study”
Sternberg’s triangular theory
-Intimacy (liking): how much do you know about each other
- Passion (infatuation): do you feel passionate about the other person
-Commitment (empty love): do you feel committed to the relationship
-Intimacy+passion: romantic love
-Intimacy+commitment: companionate love
-Passion +commitment: fatuous love (romance movies)
-Intimacy+passion+commitment: consummate love
Risky shift & group polarization
Refers to the tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than individuals would make alone. The tendency for group decisions to be more extreme than those made by individuals; whatever way the group as a whole is leaning, group discussion tends to make it lean further in that direction.
what is a group?
a collection of people who have relations to one another that make them interdependent to some significant degree
Psychological need to form a group
Schutz: relationship between psychological needs and group formation
- inclusion: desire to be part of and accepted by a group
- control: need to guide the group by organizing and maintaining the group’s processes
-Affection: need to maintain open, positive relations with others
Passionate love
a state of intense longing for someone
-Intense physiological arousal
-Psychological interest
-Care for their needs
-Extreme highs and lows
-When it’s great: fulfillment and ecstasy
- When it’s bad: sadness and despair
Companionate love
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined but do not necessarily experience passion or arousal in their presence
-strong commitment
-deep affectionate
-shares values
-less intense physiological arousal
Behavioral theory
people learn from their interaction with their partners whether or not they are in a good relationship
-positive behaviors enhance the global evaluations of the marriage while negative behaviors harm it
The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
In the context of relationship conflicts, namely criticism, defensiveness, contempt, and stonewalling, are destructive communication patterns that can lead to relationship deterioration and even dissolution.
-Stonewalling: refusal to respond-withdrawal from the conflict, the relationship and the partner
The ABC components
-Affective (prejudice): a hostile or negative feeling toward people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their membership in that group (a feeling)
-Behavioral (discrimination): unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members (how we act)
-Cognitive (stereotype): a generalization about a group of people, in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group regardless of variation (a belief)
Modern racism
A more subtle, more socially acceptable form of racism
-greatest prejudice in the most intimate social realms
Benevolent sexism
subjectively positive but patronizing attitudes toward women who conform to traditional gender role norms
-letting the young mother go home early from work, while the person who stays late gets credit
Realistic group conflict theory
Actual competition for resources or competing goals between groups leads to conflict that then fosters stereotyping and prejudice
Robbers cave study
Step 1: formation of the ingroup
-Groups of boys at camp
Step 2: competition with the outgroup
-Baseball games
Step 3: cooperation between groups
-Superordinate shared goals that necessitate cooperative effort
-Pool money to watch movie
-Pull their bus out of the mud
The “Jigsaw” classroom
Students divided into multi-ethnic and multi-ability groups
Each student is given 1/6 of the material (equal share) for the upcoming test
Students must rely on each other to learn all of the material
Afterward students
-more positive attitudes towards different ethnicities
-better academic performance
-increase in self-esteem
-greater empathy
Minimal groups paradigm
Even arbitrary and virtually meaningless distinctions between groups can trigger a tendency to favor one’s own group at the expense of others
Social identity Theory
-if you are part of a group, you are happier
-likes more prestigious groups
Outgroup homogeneity effect
Perception of out-group members as being more similar to one another than in-group members
-“They all look alike, we’re diverse”
-Own-race bias and lined-up studies
Subtyping
creating a category for exceptions
Out-group derogation
the phenomenon in which an out-group is perceived as being threatening to the members of an in-group.
Just-world phenomenon
belief that the world is just and people get what they deserve
Implicit bias
a form of bias that occurs automatically and unintentionally, that nevertheless affects judgments, decisions, and behaviors.
Shooter bias
Systematic, pervasive racial bias in the decision to shoot versus not shoot
Socio-functional model
outgroups perceived as threatening to in group’s physical safety elicit fear in ingroup members that ultimately results in motivation to escape
Dissociation model
Processing information about others is a two-step process
1. stereotypes are automatically triggered
2. We control whether or not we accept the stereotype
if we are distracted, overwhelmed, or not paying attention, then we don’t control -> stereotyping
Contact hypothesis
Contact between members of different groups leads to more positive intergroup attitudes
-Requires equal status
-Best if friendship form
Cooperation
Sometimes more than contact is required - working together
Superordinate goals
-shared goals that necessitate cooperative effort
Aggression
Intentional behavior aimed at causing physical harm or psychological pain to themselves or others
Hostile aggression
aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain or injury (inflicting pain)
Instrumental aggression
aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain (to get something else, goal is not to harm people. Ex. Survival)
Relational aggression
aggression that harms another person through the manipulation of relationships (spreading rumors rather than punching someone in the face)
heat and aggression
heat increases aggression. If you want to reduce aggression, turn on the air conditioner, etc.
Media and aggression
Does watching violent media increase violent behavior?- very small correlation. video game study,
How can we reduce harm?
-Censorship
-catharsis: anger builds up until it explodes (not good)
-heat reduction
-communication
-reconciliation
-Access to nature
Increases aggression
-Physical heat
-wealth inequality
-social rejection
-dehumanization
Why do we harm others?: instinct theories
-instinct theories: aggression is unlearned and universal
-Freud: two instincts (eros-life, and thanatos-death)
-aggression serves as a survival function
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
frustration: blocking a goal-directed behavior (leads to aggression)
Scapegoat hypothesis
when the cause of frustration is vague, hostility and aggression are redirected to an easy target
Social learning theory of aggression
individuals become aggressive by imitating role models. SLT states that observational learning takes place and that this learning is reinforced vicariously.
Culture of honor
a complex set of beliefs, attitudes, and norms about the importance of personal reputation, and the necessity of protecting and defending one’s reputation and social image.
Precarious manhood hypothesis
men respond with aggression when they experience threats to their masculinity.
Reactive devaluation
tendency to devalue an offer simply because the other side made it, regardless of the worth
What increases conflict?
-misperceptions
-taking polarized positions on topics
-reactive devaluation
Face-to-face communication
Having adversaries meet face-to-face can reduce conflict
Catharsis
purging of emotions
Violent media
Violent video game study (Bushman & Anderson, 2002). Things such as violent movies or video games, can increase aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Altruism
goal to increase another’s welfare, regardless of consequences
Kin selection
Genes have to survive, not you, so help those who share your genes
Reciprocal Altruism
-We help those who help us back
-Tit-for-tat strategy
-Reciprocity norms
Negative State Relief Hypothesis
Seeing someone in distress makes us feel bad
We help to eliminate our own negative feelings
Empathy-altruism (empathic concern) hypothesis
Sometimes we help, even at great personal cost
Empathic concern- identifying with another person-feeling and understanding what that person is experiencing by the intention of helping the person in need
When people feel empathy, should help for altruistic reasons, regardless of personal costs
5 stage model of bystander intervention
- Noticing a person, event, or situation that may require help
- Interpreting that help is needed
- Taking responsibility for helping
- Deciding how to help
- Helping
Diffusion of responsibility
tendency for each group member to dilute personal responsibility for acting by spreading it among all other group members
How can we increase helping?
-if you are in an emergency what should you do?
-Attract attention. Yell “fire” not “help”
-make it clear that it is an emergency “I don’t know you” or “I need help”
-delegate responsibility by singling someone out “You! in the red coat!”
Rumination
intrusive thoughts about stressful events
Catastrophizing
overemphasizing the negative consequences of an event
Emotion-focused coping
attempting to control the negative emotional consequences of the stressor
problem-focused coping
attempting to alter or eliminate a source of stress
self-distancing
thinking about the situation from a third-person perspective can give perspective
social support
friends, family, and spouse is a stress mediator
voir dire
the portion of a trial where potential jurors are questioned about potential biases, and a jury is selected. If jurors are unable to be unbiased, they are sent home
Perceived control
An individual who believes they have power over their health outcomes takes active steps to lead a healthy lifestyle, such as exercising regularly, eating nutritious food, and seeking medical advice when necessary, based on the belief that their actions can influence their overall well-being.
Loss aversion
An investor experiences this when they are more motivated to avoid losses than to achieve gains. They may be hesitant to sell a declining stock in the hopes that it will rebound, as the fear of incurring a loss outweighs the potential for future gains.
Risk aversion vs. risk-seeking
A risk-averse individual prefers to choose safer, more predictable options, such as investing in low-risk bonds, to avoid potential losses. In contrast, a risk-seeking individual may be more inclined to invest in high-risk stocks or start a new business venture with the possibility of greater returns, despite the associated risks
Sunk cost fallacy
A person continues to invest time, money, or resources into a failing project because they have already invested a significant amount, even if it is clear that continuing would not be a wise decision. This leads them to focus on past investments rather than future outcomes.
Mental Accounting
A person separates their financial resources into different accounts such as saving for a vacation, paying off debt, or investing for retirement. This can influence their spending and saving decisions, as they may allocate funds differently based on the perceived purpose of each account.
Decision paralysis
Faced with numerous options and information overload, an individual experiences this, struggling to make a choice due to the overwhelming complexity or fear of making the wrong choice. This can occur when selecting a product from a wide range of options or choosing a career path among various possibilities.
Incremental vs. entity theory of intelligence
A student with an incremental theory of intelligence believes that abilities can be developed and improved through effort and learning. In contrast, a student with an entity theory of intelligence believes that abilities are fixed and innate. By fostering an incremental theory of intelligence, educators can encourage students to embrace challenges and persist in their learning.
Scientific jury selection
A statistical approach to jury selection whereby jury selection specialists interview members of different demographic groups in the broader community about their attitudes toward various issues related to a trial, and defense and prosecuting attorneys try to influence the selection of jurors accordingly.
Eyewitness testimony
This refers to an individual’s account of an event they witnessed, which is often used as evidence in legal proceedings. However, research has shown that this can be influenced by various factors, such as memory distortion, leading questions, or external influences, which can impact its accuracy and reliability.
How can we use social psychological principles to reduce bias in the legal system?
It can be applied to reduce bias in the legal system by implementing evidence-based practices, such as diversifying jury pools, providing jury instructions to mitigate bias, training legal professionals in recognizing and addressing biases, and promoting awareness of the potential pitfalls of eyewitness testimony.
Bias in the criminal justice system
Application of stereotypes leads to higher search/arrest rates for minorities. and more sever punishment for marginalized groups. Example: Facial recognition technology.
Factors that affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
- Witness are not as accurate when identifying others of a different race.
- High stress can augment memory and encoding.
- disguise.
- The more accurate a witness is about details of a crime scene, the less accurate they are about the criminal.
- Witnesses more likely to identify suspects when the lineup administrator knows which lineup member is the suspect, irrespective of the suspects guilt.
- Rapid identification are generally more accurate than slow. identification.
Police conduct in getting false confessions
Police can not tell the truth in interrogations. They can have you held in a room for long amounts of time. They can convince you that everything will get better if you admit to the crime or tell the truth.
Values and political orientation
Individuals with different political orientations may prioritize different values, such as fairness, equality, or individualism, which can influence their attitudes and behaviors towards helping others and social issues.
Effect of wealth on helping
Research suggests that individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may be more likely to engage in helping behaviors compared to wealthier individuals, as they may have a stronger sense of interdependence and empathy towards others in need.
Bystander effect
In an emergency situation, the presence of other people can reduce the likelihood of individuals intervening to help, as diffusion of responsibility occurs, leading to a decreased sense of personal responsibility to take action.
Social reward hypothesis
A benefit, such as praise, positive attention, something tangible, or gratitude, that may be gained from helping others and thus serves as a motive for altruistic behavior.
Egoistic motivation for altruism
Goal to increase one’s own welfare, regardless of other consequences brought about by goal-pursuit behavior(including benefits to others. Example: A person donates to a charity not because they genuinely care about the cause, but because they want to enhance their public image and receive recognition or praise for their charitable act.
Altruistic motivation for altruism
Goal to increase another’s welfare, regardless of other consequences brought about by goal pursuit behavior (including benefits to oneself). Example: An individual volunteers at a homeless shelter out of a genuine desire to help others and make a positive impact on their lives, driven by their intrinsic motivation.
Distancing
Individuals may separate themselves emotionally or psychologically from the consequences of their aggressive actions, allowing them to justify or engage in aggression without feeling personal responsibility or empathy towards the targets of their aggression.
Simplistic vs. complex reasoning and rhetoric
Example: Political leaders who employ _______ reasoning and use inflammatory or dehumanizing rhetoric can contribute to an escalation of aggression and hostility among their followers. A scientist explaining the intricacies of climate change in a public lecture uses _______ reasoning by presenting a comprehensive analysis of multiple factors, data sets, and potential outcomes.
Dehumanization
The attribution of nonhuman characteristics and denial of human qualities to groups (generally to groups other than one’s own).
Hydraulic model of aggression
Aggression serves a survival function. When aggression is not released it builds up until it explodes.
Family life and aggression
This pertains to the influence of familial environments on the development and expression of aggressive behaviors in individuals. Positive family dynamics, characterized by supportive relationships and effective communication, tend to mitigate aggression, while dysfunctional family structures or negative. Example: Growing up in a household with frequent physical fights and aggressive behaviors, a child learn to use aggression as a coping mechanism and may continue to exhibit aggressive behaviors in their own relationships.
Anonymity and aggression
This describes the phenomenon where individuals, are more likely to engage in aggressive or antisocial behavior, often fueled by reduced accountability for their actions. The perceived lack of personal identification or consequences in anonymous settings can lead to an increase in aggressive actions, both online and offline. Example: Online, anonymous users engage in aggressive and hostile behavior, such as posting hateful comments or engaging in cyberbullying, as the lack of personal identification reduces accountability and fear of consequences.
Awareness of specific effects
Individuals may become more conscious of the potential consequences of their behavior, such as the harm caused by aggression, and adjust their actions accordingly.
Stereotype Threat
The fear of confirming the stereotypes that others have about one’s group. When individuals are aware of negative stereotypes associated with their social group, they may experience anxiety and perform worse on tasks that are relevant to the stereotype, due to the fear of confirming the stereotype and the pressure to disprove it.
Paired distinctiveness
Two events that stand out even more because they occur together. Example: A person remembers encountering an individual with a rare characteristic, such as a person with a distinctive tattoo and blue hair, because the combination of these unique attributes stands out and is more memorable than encountering someone with only one of those characteristics.
Cognitive misers
When faced with complex decisions or information overload, individuals tend to rely on mental shortcuts and heuristics to make quick and efficient judgments.
Basking in reflected glory
Taking pride in the accomplishments of other people in one’s group, such as when sports fans identify with a winning team. Example: After their favorite sports team wins a championship, fans proudly wear team merchandise and share in the team’s success, seeking to associate themselves with the achievement.
Sex differences in attraction and mate selection
Research shows that men tend to place more importance on physical attractiveness in potential mates, while women value traits such as financial stability and social status, reflecting sex differences in attraction and mate selection.
Complementary hypothesis
A couple where one partner is dominant and assertive, while the other is submissive and accommodating, where individuals are attracted to partners who have qualities that _________ their own.
Need to belong (Harlow’s monkey)
This study demonstrated that social connection and attachment are fundamental human needs. The studies involved infant monkeys being raised with surrogate mothers made of wire or cloth, showing a preference for the cloth mother that provided comfort and emotional support, highlighting the need for social contact and attachment.
Leadership and power in groups
Refers to the process of influencing and guiding a group towards a goal. _______ in groups refers to the ability to exert influence and control over others’ behavior or decision-making processes.
Self-censorship
Withholding information or opinions in group discussions. It can contribute to the development of groupthink and hinder the expression of diverse viewpoints.
Factors that decrease/increase obedience
Decrease: Prestige and Status of Experimenter, Presence of others who disobey, Proximity of Victim, Personality characteristics.
Increase: perceived legitimate authority, absence of dissenting voices, and a remote or anonymous situation.
Social rules
Societal norms and expectations that guide behavior within a community. For instance, waiting in line at a grocery store demonstrates the expectation of orderly and fair queuing, ensuring that customers are served in a systematic manner.
Cultural differences in conformity
It arises from variations in societal norms and values across different cultures. In collectivist cultures like Japan, there is a higher emphasis on group harmony and conformity to maintain social cohesion. In contrast, individualistic cultures like the United States prioritize personal autonomy and independence, leading to lower levels of conformity. For example, in Japan, individuals may conform to social norms regarding proper etiquette and behavior in public spaces, whereas in the United States, there is more acceptance of individual expression and deviation from societal norms.
