Exam 1 Flashcards
Features of science
Logical-systematic observation, repeatable- public verification, open to disconfirmation-solvable probelms
Observational/ethno graphy studies
observe behavior where it typically happens. Strengths- high in external validity (ability to generalize conclusions to other stimuli/groups) limitations- can only describe, no private/rare events, subject to observer bias, absent internal validity (support causal claims)
Correlational studies
Determine how much in what way two pre-exisitng variables are related. Strengths- Can study things you can’t or shouldn’t manipulate, get lots of data, often relatively cheap and easy. Limitations- response bias, sampling errors( deviation of sample from population), cannot interpret causality, Correlation DOES NOT prove causation.
Experimental Studies
manipulate one or more variables while controlling others (holding things constant). Strengths- high internal validity, CAN conclude causality. Limitation- may be relatively expensive, subject to demand characteristics (responses changing to fit participant belief about the study), low external validity.
Independent vs dependent variables
Independent variable: The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter
Dependent variable: The measurement of the consequences
Theory vs hypothesis
Theory: An integrated set of statements that describes, predicts, or explains behavior. Backed by logic or reasonable evidence
Hypothesis: Specific, testable, and disconfirmable statement about the behavior we want to study or theory we want to test
Construct vs operationalization
Construct: The conceptual representation of the phenomenon around which research is beased. Intangible- does not exist in the physical reality. Ex. “venting frustration”
Operationalization: Defines a construct in concrete terms “throwing a chair at one’s boss”
Goals of research
describe a behavior, predict behavior, and explain behavior
External and internal validity
External: an indication of how well the results of a study generalize beyond the sampling from the experiment
Internal: confidence that only the manipulated independent variable. No other external influence could have produced the results.
Reliability
The degree to which a particular way of measuring a variable yield consistent results
Problem in studies
Response bias- people tend to lie or bend the truth
Sampling error- error that occurs when a sample somehow does not represent the target population
Demand characteristics-cues in experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected
Social desirability bias -the tendency to respond to questions in a socially desirable manner
Third variables
A variable, often measured in correlational research, that can be the true explanation for the relationship between two other variables
IRB and ethical concerns
IRB:institutional review board monitors activies and approves studies before running them
Ethical concerns: Require informed consent so people know what they are getting into. Attempt to minimize discomfort, only do worthwhile research, ensure confidentiality of identity/data, debrief participants to the true nature of the study after it’s over, including any decpetion
Replication
reproduction of research results by the original investigator or by someone else
Better-than-average-effect
tendency to perceive ourselves better than everyone else or the average person. Peoples tend to think they’re better than most people even if they’re not.
Contingencies of self-worth
Fluctuations in self-esteem depend on how important the domain is.
Direct feedback
the information received from others abouttraits and abilities-explicit or objective feedback
Dunning-kruger effect
Low performers think they are BETTER than the reality, high performers think they are WORSE than reality
Impression management
strategic control of information comunicated to audiences. Can be trivial information or more important. Audience can be real, imagined, or self.
Introspection
you know yourself better than anyone.. Looking inward. There are limits on that knowledge
Promotion vs. prevention focus
focusing your life on self betterment and positive things versus focusing on avoiding negative
Reflected appraisals
our PERCEPTION of how others percieve and evaluate us (if i am picked last for the basketbal team then I will assume I am bad at basketball)
Self evaluation maintence model
A theory predicting under what conditions people are likely to react to the success of others with either pride or jealousy using social comparison and reflection
Self-affirmation theory
The idea that people can maintain an overall sense of self-worth following psychologically threatening information by affirming a valued aspect of themselves unrelated to the threat
Self-assessment
desire for accurate self-knowledge (want to be right and feel good about myself)
Self-awareness
A theory maintaining that when people focus their attention inward on themselves. They become concerned with self-evaluation and how their current behavior conforms to their internal standards and values
Self-consistency-
an absence of conflict among self-perceptions
Self-deception
The action or practice of allowing oneself to believe that false or unvalidated feelings, ida, or situation is true
self -discrepancy theory
Actual, Ideal, Ought. A theory that behavior is motivated by standards reflecting ideal and ought selves. Falling short of these standards produces specific emotions: dejection-related emotions in the case of actual-idea discrepancies and agitation-realted emotions in the case of actual-ought discrepancies
Self-enhancement
need for positive self-view and to protect against negative feedback
Self-esteem (trait, state)
Most people have high self esteem (trait), fluctuations in self-esteem over time and in different domains (state).
Self-handicapping
protecting one’s self image by creating a handy excuse for failure. “Didn’t study because they knew they were going to fail”
Self-monitoring
monitoring how one is being perceived in social settings. High self-monitors: “social chameleons” low self-monitors- prefer consistency across situations and audiences
Self-perception theory
The theory that people come to know their own attitude by looking at their behavior and the context in which it occurred and inferring what their attitudes must be
Self- presentation
controlling, regulating, and monitoring information about the self. One kind of impression management. Presenting a desired but plausible identity to others. Audience may be external, imaginary, or self
Self-reference effect
information is better recalled when it is related to itself.
Self-schemas
A cognitive representation of a person’s belief and feelings about the self in general and in certain situations
Self-verification
need to maintain a stable, subjectively accurate self-concept (being right, the views I have about are accurate. Being stable)
Self-regulation
processes by which people initiate, alter, and control their behavior in the pursuit of goals, including the ability to resist short-term rewards that thwart the attainment of long-term
Social comparison theory
(festinger 1954) when an objective standard is not available, people will use a social standard instead. Most informative when people compare themselves to similar others-because it is not fair to compare yourself out of standards, possibly demotivating. The people around you affect you in your life compared to everyone, morerealistic feedback.
Social comparison
the act of comparing our traits and abilities with the traits and abilities of others
Sociometer theory
Evolutionary purpose: protects against isolation, measure of social inclusion/exclusion
System 1 vs. system 2 processing
System 1: fast, automatic, frequent, emotional sterotypic, unconscious
System 2: slow, efforful, infrequent, logical, deliberative, conscious
Top-down vs. bottom-up processing
Top down: is when people interpret new information in light of pre-exisiting knowledge and expectations (thoery driven)
Bottom up: is when an individual forms conclusions based on the stimuli encountered in the environment (data driven)
Schemas
a collection of related beliefs or ideas that people use to organize their knowledge about the world.
-Script: how to do something -like how to act on a date
-Stereotypes: schemas for people- like who is a “jock”
-Self-schemas: generalization/beliefs about the self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information
Priming
The presentation of information designed to activate a concept (such as a stereotype) and hence make it accessible. A prime is the stimulus presented to activate the concept in question
Why do we use heuristics
social cognition is affected by our limited cognitive capacity when we navigate through the complicated self world, this leads us to apply cognitive heuristics to conserve mental efforts
Representativeness heuristic
a mental shortcut people use to classify something as belonging to a certain catgeoy to the extent that it is similar to a typical case from that category- tendency to ignore statistical information in faovor of stereotypical information
Availability heuristic
a mental shortcut people use to estimate the likelihood of an event by the ease with which instances of that event come to mind
Base-rate neglect
tendency to ignore statistical information in favor in vivid case histories
Anchoring and adjustment
a mental shortcut through which people begin with a rough estimaton as a starting point and then adjust this estimate to take account unique characteristics of the present situation
Fluency
The feeling of ease (or difficulty) associated with processing information
Framing effects
the way an issue is posed can significantly affect our decisions and judgements
Illusory correlation
overestimating the relationship between two variables (where none actually exists)- think athletes ritual (false belief of causation)
Assimilation
interpreting new information in terms of existing beliefs (like a schema)
Regression fallacy
misunderstanding the statistical tendency for extreme behavior to return one’s average
Pluralistic ignorance
phenomenon in which people mistakenly believe that others predominatly have a different opinion then their own.
Self-fufulling prophecy
our expectations lead us to act in ways that cause others to confirm our expectation
Belief perseverance
persistence of one’s initial conceptions, even in the fact of opposing evidence. (firefighter example, they told participants they got it wrong but people persevered and kept their original opinion)
Primacy and recency effects
Primacy effects: information presented at the beginning is most persuasive
Recency effect: information presented at the end is most persuasive
Construal level theory
A theory about the relationship between temporal distance (and other kinds of distance) and abstract or concrete thinking: psychologically distant actions and events are thought about in abstract term; actions and events that are close at hand are thought about in concrete terms
Confirmation bias
tendency to search for information that confirms our preconceptions
change/inattentional blindness
suggest selective attention needed for awareness. Suggests attention necessary for stimulus awareness.
