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health and wellbeing > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Constant supply and expenditure of energy needed for:

A

homeostasis, maintain temp, to perform work, for survival

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2
Q

How many kJ in:
1g protein
1g fat
1g carbohydrates
1g alcohol

A

17 kJ
37 kJ
17 kJ
29 kJ

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3
Q

What results from the breakdown of sugars, proteins, and fats?

A

Acetyl-CoA

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4
Q

Energy content (%) of daily use?
Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins

A

55
30
15

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5
Q

Where is glycolysis catalyzed?

A

In the cytoplasm

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6
Q

What does glycolysis not require?

A

O2

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7
Q

What is the opposite of glycolysis (based on anabolism)?

A

gluconeogenesis

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8
Q

In glycolysis, glucose is ______ ________ and a small amount of ______ is produced

A

partially oxidized, ATP

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9
Q

Upside of lactic acid

A

lactate makes the cell membrane of skeletal muscle more electrically excitable

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10
Q

Downside of lactic acid

A

pH drops (not good for homeostasis)

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11
Q

What metabolites can make glucose anew?

A

pyruvate, glycerol, lactic acid,
and numerous amino acids can.

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12
Q

Which enzyme transports pyruvate across the inner mitochondrial membrane?

A

pyruvate dehydrogenase

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13
Q

The krebbs cycle summarized is the oxidation of ________ yielding ________, ____, and ______

A

Acetyl-CoA, reduced compounds, CO2 and GTP

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14
Q

Acetyl-CoA can be formed by pyruvate or….

A

beta-oxidation of fatty acids

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15
Q

The ETC summarized is the conversion of __________ to __________

A

reduced compounds, a gradient of protons

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16
Q

What can block the ETC?

A

cyanide

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17
Q

What treatment should be given to someone who has been exposed to cyanide

A

methylene blue

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18
Q

Which two organs take up the most amount of energy?

A

The heart and the kidneys

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19
Q

What do you call an enzyme that facilitates phosphorylation?

A

a kinase

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20
Q

a dephosphorylating enzyme is called a?

A

phosphatase

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21
Q

What is the normal energy consumption (kcal) for one person in a day?

A

2000-3000

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22
Q

What are free fatty acids in the blood bound to?

A

albumin

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23
Q

What inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase?

A

phosphorylation

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24
Q

The phosphorylation of the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase is stimulated by the presence of?

A

ATP, NADH, Acetyl-CoA

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25
Q

What are the top 5 causes of death? and roughly their percentage?

A

Ischaemic heart disease
Stroke
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Lower respiratory infections
Alzheimers disease and other dementias

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26
Q

Phospholipids are composed of…

A

polar head, fatty acid chains + phosphoester bond

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27
Q

Name the mechanisms to transport across membranes

A

Ion channels, transporters (uniporter - down conc grad, symporter - against conc grad w/co-transporter ions, antiporter - against conc grad + other ions move down cond grad), ATP-powered pumps (against electrochem grad e.g 3Na+ 2K+)

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28
Q

How did we get contaminated with covid?

A

Some types of cells express certain proteins (in the plasma membrane) that are very sticky to sars-covid-19

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29
Q

What is the function of a lysosome?

A

specialized in the breakdown (hydrolysis) of organic molecules. products are often simple sugars + amino acids which are re-used in the cytosol

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30
Q

What is the function of a peroxisome?

A

breakdown of organic molecules with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and synthesis of myelin

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31
Q

What is the function of a mitochondrion?

A

Major sites of O2 consumption, ATP production, contain specialized enzymes encoded by mitochondrial DNA (mitochondiral DNA is maternally inherited)

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32
Q

What is the function of rER?

A

associated with many ribosomes = synthesis (anabolism) of peptides + proteins (including enzymes) (these proteins are transported in vesicles to the golgi complex)

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33
Q

Info about DNA?

A

it is bound to histones to form chromatin fibers (help package DNA into nucleus), used as template for mRNA in transcription

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34
Q

Differences between cells (and tissues) is due to differences in transcription of the DNA – but all cells have the same DNA. So how are the differences between cells (differentiation) attained?

A

Some DNA will be wound up tightly (histones) so that it can’t be read (closed chromatin)
DNA can be unwound (open chromatin), so that polymerase II can make copies of DNA etc
(permissive DNA is only slightly unwound) = only certain DNA is transcribed)

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35
Q

How are tissues made?

A

via cell junctions which make cells ‘stick to eachother’ and allow cells to communicate

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36
Q

What are the types of cell junctions?

A

Tight junctions + anchoring junctions anchor cells to each other
Gap junctions enable cells to communicate with each other via hormones + NT
Desmosomes lie in the basal lamina + join cells

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37
Q

When the body is made up of so many cells, how can they be made to function together?

A

via chemical signalling

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38
Q

Tight junctions function? + implications

A

prevent passage of small molecules + fluid between cells = drugs suspended in blood can’t make it into nervous tissue (blood-brain barrier)

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39
Q

How does cancer arise?

A

It is a disease of the genome in which mutations occur in tumor-supressor genes and oncogenes (control cell cycle)
mutations can appear due to exposure to carcinogens, radiation.
Intracellular communication is disturbed because of mutations in cells that become cancer cells

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40
Q

What does cancer cause?

A

promotes cell proliferation (growth + division) and inhibits apoptosis (cell death) due to disruption of the cell cycle

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41
Q

What is the distinction between malignant cancer and benign tumors?

A

In benign tumors the tumor has not traversed the basal lamina (tumor has not metastasized) malignant cancer is when the tumor has traversed the basal lamina = metastasis has occured = cancer spreads to other areas

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42
Q

What are the roles of cholesterol

A

Component of cell membranes
Precursor to bile acids
Precursor to steroid homones
Precursor to vitamin D

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43
Q

What are the main types of tissue?

A

Connective, nervous, epithelial, muscle

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44
Q

The cell membrane is semi-permeable which molecules diffuse easily across and which have difficulties

A

difficult: glucose
easy: O2, CO2, N2, steroid hormone

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45
Q

Where is the cytoskeleton + what is it made of?

A

inside the cell, made up of actin filaments + microtubules

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46
Q

Proteins are polymers of the 20 common L-amino acids and
constitute about ___% of the body weight of the average
adult.

A

16

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47
Q

What is the role of sodium-potassium ATPase

A

Under the use of energy (ATP becomes ADP & a free phosphate), it pumps Na+ AGAINST its concentration gradient, from a low concentration inside the cell to a high concentration outside the cell.

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48
Q

What powers the transport of amino acids and glucose into the cell?

A

protein transporters that USE the energy STORED in the Na+ gradient (made by sodium-potassium ATPase)

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49
Q

Describe early autonomic regulation of digestion

A

Parasympathetic nerves release acetylcholine which act at muscarinic receptors to increase saliva production + blood flow. Also release VIP = vasoconstriction = more release of saliva

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50
Q

role of saliva

A

breakdown of starches by addition of amylase (released by acinar cells which also secrete isotonic electrolytes)

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51
Q

Process of gastric acid secretion

A

Under cephalic control (stimulated by food, taste, smell, mastication) which involves parasympathetic stimulation.
Indirect parasymp - release of histamine which acts on receptors to increase cAMP which also activates proton pump
Direct control - Release of ACh which acts on receptors = increase intracellular Ca2+ to activate proton pump
Gastrin released by G-cells (stimulated by peptide fragments) which leads to gastric phase

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52
Q

Principle roles of the stomach

A

To turn lumpy food into chyme

Provide initial enzymatic breakdown of proteins (by pepsin)

To kill germs / sterilize the stomach contents (by acid, pH 1-2)

Release of Intrinsic Factor by parietal cells to bind to Vitamin B12, allowing it to be absorbed in small intestines

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53
Q

Principle roles of the pancreas

A

Makes the chyme suitable for the small intestine

Releases alkaline compounds (principally HCO3-) whereby pH is raised to ~5.3

Releases enzymes

Has a tremendous capacityIt can release ~10 times more compounds than are needed for digestion. Poor digestion as a symptom of pancreatic cancer is detected very late, usually there is already widespread metastasis. The prognosis of pancreatic cancer is therefore terrible: less than 10% is alive 5 years after diagnosis.

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54
Q

About the small intestine

A

Absorption is driven by
Monosaccharides (galactose, glucose, fructose): have Na+ co-transport
(di and tri-)Peptides: H+ co-transport (utilizing H+ gradient created by Na+/H+ exchange)
Lipids: broken down by lipase + then diffusion
Electrolytes: Na+ directly, or indirectly(sodium pump on basolateral side pumps Na out = diffusion gradient)
Water: follows the electrolytes and therefore follows Na+ directly, or indirectly

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55
Q

About the liver

A

blood leaves liver via hepatic vein
75% of blood enters via hepatic portal vein other 25% via hepatic artery
Protein synthesis (coagulation factors, albumin, angiotensinogen)
Drug metabolism (phase I: hepatic oxidation via Cyt P450 + Phase II: transferase reaction + coagulation)
Cholesterol synthesis (inhibited by statins)
Bile production (gall bladder w/ duct releases bile salts which are reabsorbed via enterohepatic recycling)
Glycogen synthesis storage and breakdown
Gluconeogenesis
Haemoglobin metabolism (bilirubin production + conjugates)

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56
Q

The liver’s role in blood sugar regulation

A

When blood glucose is low, the liver responds to glucagon (hormone) and breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis) to release glucose to the blood

When blood glucose is high, the liver responds to insulin (hormone) and takes glucose from the blood to build glycogen

The liver also synthesizes glucose anew (gluconeogenesis) from amino acids, glycerol, pyruvate and lactate (but it can’t do it from Acetyl-CoA a source of which is fatty acids, meaning fatty acids cannot be converted to sugar)

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57
Q

The liver’s role in regulation of fats of the blood

A

The liver makes cholesterol by the enzyme HMG CoA reductase (important in obesity and atherosclerosis for cholesterol lowering drugs)

Makes low and high density lipoproteins (important for transport of cholesterols)

Makes triglycerides – plasma membranes

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58
Q

List the 3 ways the breakdown of nutrient molecules occurs

A

heat (cooking), mechanical (chewing), chemical (enzymatic + acidic)

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59
Q

The kidneys receive ___ % of blood pumped

A

20

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60
Q

How much do kidneys weigh?

A

300g

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61
Q

How many nephrons do they contain?

A

2 million

62
Q

How much blood per minute do they receive?

A

1 liter

63
Q

How much preurine/ultrafiltrate do they produce per minute?

A

125 ml

64
Q

How much urine do they produce per minute?

A

1 ml

65
Q

Name all the parts of a nephron

A

glomerulus, bowmans capsule, collecting duct, loop of henle, vasa recta,

66
Q

The influence of blood pressure on filtration in the kidneys

A

PG - glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure. The value is 55 mmHg (other organs is ~25 mmHg)

67
Q

Which part of the gastrointestinal tract is the longest?

A

Small intestine

68
Q

Which part of the gastrointestinal tract is the shortest?

A

Duodenum

69
Q

Approx how many meters long is the small intestine?

A

6

70
Q

The pyloic oifice is at the end of the _________

A

stomach

71
Q

Activity of the parasympathetic nevous system on the
gastrointestinal system ____________ digestion

A

promotes

72
Q

Saliva is eniched in which enzyme?

A

Amylase

73
Q

Amylase breaks down

A

carbohydrates

74
Q

What does the release of acetylcholine ACh promote in the stomach?

A

the secretion of
protons/acid to the stomach lumen

75
Q

Stomach ulcers (gastic ulceration) is frequently associated,
in 70% of cases, with infections of which germ?

A

Helicobacter pylori

76
Q

Which substances require active transport related to Na+
(sodium ions) to be absorbed?

A

monosacchaides
peptides and amino acids
electrolytes
water

77
Q

Patients with cancer of the pancreas have a _________ chance
of suviving when compared to patients with most other
types of cancer

A

very poor

78
Q

What is gluconeogenesis?

A

Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-
carbohydrates like amino acids and glycerol (the molecular
backbone of tiglyceides

79
Q

The synthesis in the liver of cholesterol from acetyl-co-
enzyme A (acetyl-CoA requires a seies of enzymes of which
__________ is one

A

HMG CoA reductase

80
Q

Of the blood going to the liver, approximately ___% is venous
blood coming from the gastrointestinal system

A

75

81
Q

Bile salts breaks down, or emulsifies, the size of aggregates
of

A

Fats

82
Q

To make the highly acidic stomach contents more alkaline
(increase the pH, juices of the pancreas contain a lot of
________

A

Bicarbonate

83
Q

the glomeulus of nephrons is always in the _______ of the kidney

A

cortex

84
Q

the vascular network around the nephron is called the

A

vasa recta

85
Q

The amount of plasma filtered by the kidneys in the course of
1 day is approximately

A

180L

86
Q

most reabsorption after the glomeulus happens in the?

A

proximal convoluted tube

87
Q

the final concentration of uine is predominantly regulated in
the?

A

collecting duct

88
Q

The presence of ADH promotes the insetion of Aquapoins
water channels in epithelial cells lining the lumen of the
nephron. In which pat of the nephron does ADH exert its
effect?

A

collecting duct

89
Q

For reabsorption of glucose, electrolytes and water, the
sodium-potassium pump is of ___________ impotance

A

paramount/utmost

90
Q

The production of Anti Diuretic Homone ADH is under the
influence of osmoreceptors that reside in the ____________

A

hypothalamus

91
Q

While ADH is produced in the hypothalamus, it is released
into the blood stream from the __________

A

pituitary gland

92
Q

What is the name of the blood volume regulating homone released from the atia of the heat?

A

ANP

93
Q

Each minute, each person, on average, uses how much O2?

A

200ml

94
Q

PO2 + PCO2 (in air)
PO2 + PCO2 (in alveoli)
PO2 + PCO2 5.3 kPa (in veins)
PO2 + PCO2 6.5 kPa (in tissues)

A

PO2 21.2kPa (in air) PCO2 .0 kPa (in air, virtually none)
PO2 13.3 kPa (in alveoli) PCO2 5.3 kPa (in alveoli)
PO2 13.3 kPa (in veins) PCO2 5.3 kPa (in veins)
PO2 6.0 kPa (in tissues) PCO2 6.5 kPa (in tissues)

94
Q

Ohms Law

A

Voltage = Current x Resistance
Pressure = flow X resistance
(lungs): Air pressure = air flow X resistance
(cardiovascular system): Blood pressure = blood flow X resistance

95
Q

Poiseuille’s law

A

Resistance = 8x viscosity x length / pi x r^4
Radius raised to power of 4
Radius is greatest determinant of resistance because only large diameter airways or blood vessels are long

96
Q

What vol is dead space?

A

150 ml

97
Q

Inhalation is _____
Exhalation is ______ (except under exertion)

A

active, passive

98
Q

What happens to inflammed lung tissue

A

vasodilation
Increased permeability/leakiness in vessels
exudation (exit of blood plasma)
stasis (no/little flow in vessels)
leucocyte invasion

99
Q

What is tuberculosis caused by?

A

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

100
Q

TB is the __th leading cause of death and the _____ leading infectious killer after COVID-19 (above HIV and AIDS).

A

13, 2nd

101
Q

In 2021, ____ million people fell ill with TB and ___ million died from the disease (including 0.4 million among people with HIV). Over 95% of TB deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries.

A

10.6, 1.6

102
Q

Effect of tuberculosis

A

Damages lung tissues leading to
Loss of respiratory surface (emphysema)
Scar formation and thus stiffening of the lungs (restrictive symptoms)

103
Q

Effect of covid-19

A

Damages lung tissues leading to
Loss of respiratory surface (emphysema)
Scar formation and thus stiffening of the lungs (restrictive symptoms)
Fluid accumulation in air spaces (hyaline membranes / ground-glass opacities)
Thickening of blood-air barrier

104
Q

respiratory control

A

pneumotaxic center can inhibit the apneustic center (in the pons) whose input can prolong inhalation, (+receives vagal feedback from lung baroreceptors
(which increases in response to progressive stretching))
dorsal respiratory group in medulla oblongata triggers start of inhalation

Central chemoreceptors
(CCRs) found on the ventrolateral surface of the medulla oblongata
respond to increases in [H+] (and indirectly PCO2) in cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF). Peripheral chemoreceptors (PCRs) found within the
aortic arch and carotid arteries respond when O2 falls below 8 kPa in
arterial blood

105
Q

Diffusion is vey fast, on cetain distances. Over a distance of
0.5μm - like the blood-gas baier of the lung - a gradient of
Oxygen will equilibrate in approximately __________ of a
second

A

1/10.000

106
Q

Regarding lung innervation: There is some ___________ innevation, and no _____________
innevation

A

parasympathetic, sympathetic

107
Q

Where does gas flow stop?

A

at the terminal bronchioles

108
Q

Why is the last part of inhalation difficult?

A

because with greater filling of
the lungs, there is a greater elastic recoil to overcome

109
Q

Most CO2 in the blood is in the form of

A

Hydrogen bicarbonate

110
Q

The binding of oxygen to hemoglobin is under the
influence of which factors?

A

Temp, pH, 2-3DPG, PCO2

111
Q

At rest, ventilation seves to maintain a pH of ____

A

7.4

112
Q

Describe emphysema

A

associated with a state of inflammation
is the breakdown lung tissue, for instance walls of the alveoli

113
Q

The lung volume, when measured as forced vital capacity, is
_____________ in a patient with restictive pulmonay deficit (e.g covid)

A

less than normal

114
Q

The speed of exhalation, when measured as forced
expiratoy volume in the first second, is _____________ in a
patient with restictive pulmonay deficit

A

normal

115
Q

The lung volume, when measured as forced vital capacity, is
_____________ in a patient with obstuctive pulmonay deficit.

A

normal

116
Q

The speed of exhalation, when measured as forced
expiratoy volume in the first second, is _____________ in a
patient with obstuctive pulmonay deficit

A

slower than normal

117
Q

Blood flow within the heart

A

Deoxygenated blood > right atrium > right ventricle > pulmonary trunk > lungs
Oxygenated blood > left atrium > left ventricle > aorta > the rest of the body

118
Q

Electrical activity of the heart

A

Initiation in SA node, conduction across AV node + throughout ventricles

119
Q

Systole

A

heart contracting

120
Q

Diastole

A

heart being filled

121
Q

What is hypertension?

A

High blood pressure
The higher the blood pressure in your arteries the more strain is put on the artery walls = can set the stage for atherosclerosis

122
Q

~___% of cases of hypertension has an unknown cause

A

95

123
Q

Ranges of stage 1, 2 and 3 hypertension for pressures

A

systolic
stage 1: 140-159
stage 2: 160-179
stage 3: >180

diastolic
1: 90-99
2: 100-109
3: +110

124
Q

What are the two types of strokes

A

Ischemic stroke - a clot blocks blood flow to the area
Hemorrhagic stroke (15% of all cases) - bleeding occurs inside or around tissue

125
Q

Which receptors are involved in the regulation of blood pressure?

A

Baroreceptors

126
Q

Process of regulation of blood pressure

A

Baroreceptors in the carotid sinus + aortic arch sense pressure. e.g decrease in blood pressure
Leads to decreased impulses to the nucleus of the solitary tract
Leads to decreased inhibition of pressor area of medulla = excite the vasomotor center, increasing sympathetic activity
Inhibition to depressor area of medulla = excite the vasomotor center, increasing sympathetic activity
decreased vagal output = increase in heart rate

127
Q

What is atherosclerosis?

A

Inflammation in the vessel intima (develops in the space between the endothelium and the smooth muscle of the tunica media)

128
Q

What is the progression of atherosclerosis?

A

Damage to blood vessel wall = inflammation
Deposition of foam cells in subintimal space = fatty streaks
Formation of atherosclerotic plaques
Stenosis (a substantial narowing of the vessel wall)
Rupture of plaque = clot formation

129
Q

Ischemic heart disease may manifest itself as…

A

angina pectoris – chest pain
acute coronary syndromes
heart failure – cardiac output lower than normal
arrhythmia – chaotic electrical activation of the heart
sudden death

130
Q

Which ions flow into a heat muscle cell as it is depolarized?

A

Na and Ca

131
Q

This drug is commonly available - it works against headaches!
- and it reduces the risk of myocardial infarction and ischemic
stroke because it inhibits the cyclooxygenase enzyme. What is
the drug?

A

aspirin

132
Q

B cells have origin in ____________. Red blood cells have origin in ___________

A

Lymphoid stem cells
Mixed myeloid progenitors

133
Q

In atherosclerosis there is an accumulation of cholesterol and
foam cells that eat up the cholesterol. What is the origin of the
foam cells?

A

They are modified macrophages

134
Q

What do high levels of ghrelin lead to?

A

Prader-Willi syndrome (often have body dysmorphia) as a child they have no appetite and have to be tube fed. When they grow older they experience extreme hunger. Dependent on receptors.

135
Q

When the cause of hypetension is known, which organ is
usually involved?

A

Kidneys

136
Q

What are the effects of ghrelin

A

increases appetite, stimulates growth via the hypothalamus

137
Q

Where is ghrelin secreted from?

A

gastric parietal cells (those producing acid), small amount from the small intestine, hypothalamus, pancreas

138
Q

What is the effect of leptin

A

satiety
high levels = appetite is reduced,
low levels = hunger is induced,
when low BMR lowers (energy consumption Basal Metabolic Rate)

139
Q

Where is leptin secreted from?

A

white adipose (fatty) tissue

140
Q

Which pathways does leptin affect?

A

Leptin affects an orexigenic pathway (stimulates you to eat less) and affects the anorexigenic pathway (impedes you to eat)

141
Q

Effect of androgens?

A

testosterone impacts on sexual motivation in both men and women

142
Q

Effect of aldosterone?

A

impacts on kidneys function, including retention of Na+ ions

143
Q

Effect of cortisol

A

stress

144
Q

Effects of insulin?

A

When high, reduces appetite
* increasing glucose uptake in adipose and skeletal muscle;
* increasing glycogen synthesis, inhibiting glycogenolysis;
* increasing protein synthesis, inhibiting protein breakdown;
* increasing lipogenesis, inhibiting lipolysis;
* inhibiting gluconeogenesis.

145
Q

What influences glucose homeostasis?

A

insulin secretion by the pancreas
hepatic glucose output
glucose uptake (liver, gut, muscle, and fat)

146
Q

Plasma glucose concentrations are normally maintained between ___ and ___ mmol/L

A

3, 6

147
Q

Hormones made in the hypothalamus is transported to the
hypophysis by

A

portal blood veins and intracellular transport in axons

148
Q

Axons of neurons in the paraventricular and supraoptic
nuclei reach the _______ lobe of the pituitary gland

A

posterior

149
Q

Thyroid hormones affect

A

metabolism, cardiovascular system, growth + dev

150
Q

Type I diabetes (mellitus) is caused by?

A

a diminished production of insulin

health and wellbeing (3 decks)

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