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Psy 106 > EXAM 2 > Flashcards

EXAM 2 Flashcards

1
Q

____ between forms of energy and intensity/different forms of stimulation
ex) somatosensory system-we can distinguish different forms types of touch bc our skin contains a variety of receptors and users some lines to signal light touch, vibrations, and stretching

A

Discrimination between stimuli

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2
Q

-we can distinguish different forms types of touch bc our skin contains a variety of receptors and users some lines to signal light touch, vibrations, and stretching
–free nerve endings - pain, temperature
–Merke;’s disc - touch
–Meissner’s corpuscle-touch
–Pacinian corpuscle - vibration and pressure
–Ruffini’s ending -stretch

A

Somatosensory discrimination between stimuli

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3
Q

1) sensory receptor
2) transduction process
3)neural pathway from receptor to cortex
4) coding

A

Pathway to perception

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4
Q

specialized device for picking up information from external world

A

sensory receptor

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5
Q

receptors turn energies (light waves, pressure, sound waves, etc) into graded potentials and action potentials

A

transduction process

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6
Q

brain (often cortex) interprets action potential and “perceives” input

A

coding

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7
Q

-Pacinian corpuscles -vibration/pressure
-mechanical opening of channels in transduction
–“stretch-gated” channels in dendrites
-transduction-mechanical stimulation of receptor any stretch
—coding for intensity of pressure on skin. temporal coding by different neurons, frequency of neural impulses
—-thalamus is main relay station to cortex

A

Example Pathway to Perception of Pressure

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8
Q

organized alternating between L and R
-comes from overlap of visual fields between eyes at center but little overlap in periphery
–tuned up for input from each ease in columns, with more NT transfer for each

A

ocular dominance columns

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9
Q

vision “without knowledge”
-modality specific-restricted to vision
-not a memory disorder
-items can be recognized with other modalities, but not with vision

A

visual agnosia

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10
Q

inability to recognize faces
-fusiform area in temporal lobe large specific to faces is damaged
-can distinguish between faces and objects but difficulty in distinguishing between faces
-lack of facial identification

A

Prosopagnosia

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11
Q

tympanic canal, 1 of 3 principle canals running along length of cochlea

A

scala tympani

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12
Q

an electrochemical devise that detects sounds and selectively stimulates nerves in different regions of cochlea via surgically implanted electrodes

A

cochlear implant

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13
Q

-used to find mate and appropriate food and to flee predators
-smell and taste are closely related (smell counts for at least 75% of taste/distinguishability)
-smell and memory are intertwined bc of the amygdala hippocampus are part of the olfactory pathway

A

Functions of Smell

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14
Q

1) odors are complex chemicals that attach to multiple receptors–similar chemicals attach to similar receptors
2) all receptors of one type synapse onto same glomeruli in olfactory bulb
3)a combinational map of activated glomeruli is produced in bulb
4) bulb projections are mapped onto cortical areas

A

Coding and Perception of Odor

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15
Q

a hormone secreted by pineal gland used as a marker of circadian rhythmicity in humans

*SCN takes info on day length from retina, interprets it, and passes it to pineal gland, which secretes this hormone in response two message
-a couple hours prior to sleep, secretions rise but is inhibited by daylight
–released cyclically in absence of light cues
–if SCN is destroyed, circadian rhythms disappear
-thought o play a role in photoperiodism in seasonal breeding animals
-SCN is known to have hormone receptors so there may be a loop from pineal back to SCN

A

melatonin

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16
Q

self-sustained, generated within an organism

A

endogenous

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17
Q

a pattern of EEG activity comprising a mix of many different high frequencies with low amplitude

A

desynchronized EEG/aka beta activity

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18
Q

an inherited disease that causes people in middle age to stop sleeping, which, after a few months, results in death

A

fatal familial insomnia (FFI)

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19
Q

sleepwalking

A

somnambulism

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20
Q

1) sleep is complex, fundamentally different from waking, but just as active
2) one period of sleep is by rapid eye movements (REM), total body paralysis, and small amplitude, high frequency brain waves
-this period is time who most dreams occur
-provided a marker for dreaming so that dreams could then be studied
3)these findings suggested that sleep physiology was an important discipline and suggested that sleep disorders may actually be brain disorders

A

sleep insights from electrophysiology studies

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21
Q

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
-input about physical world into our sensory receptors
-ACTUAL STIMULUS
-occurs when receptors for sensory systems register energy from external environment

A

Sensation

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22
Q

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
-process by which brain selects, organizes, and interprets sensation
-INTERPRETATION
-coding of neural input leads to interpretation of conscious experience by CNS
-can occur without sensation

A

Perception

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23
Q

the concept that each nerve input to brain reports only a particular type of info
-particular neurons are, from the outset, labelled for distinctive sensory experiences
-same physiological process by action potentials, with interpretation dependent on which labelled line
-law of specific nerve energies
-sensory pathways linked to perception in that system

A

labelled lines

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24
Q

condition in which stimuli in 1 modality evoke the involuntary experience of an additional perception in another modality
-crossing modal sensations in some individuals
-sensation MUST be reproducible within an individual, such that, as an example, a given sound or word always leads to perception of the same color
-fMRI shows abnormal activation in different sensory systems
ex-seeing evokes taste, odors evoke colors, etc
–artificially employed when a devise turns one sense into another (ex-vOICe)

A

synesthesia

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25
Q

neuron upon which information from more than one sensory system converges

A

polymodal neuron

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26
Q

-established field of psychology in US
-wrote “Principles of Psychology”
-first to distinguish sensation and perception and explored understanding of consciousness

A

William James

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27
Q

experiencing of part of labelled lines pathway that is still there but is projected as if it continues
-perception of nonexistent stimuli

A

phantom limb pain

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28
Q

-reflect constraints developed by sensory systems thru evolution
-allow us to experience world as a constant despite bodily movement
-can have perception without sensation
-one sensation can lead to multiple perceptions, requiring interpretation of sensation, one percept at a time

A

illusions

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29
Q

mimics what cones would do–produce electrical signals from photons–for interpretation as color

A

retinal implant

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30
Q

-follows basis of labelled lines
-deafness from death of hair cells in cochlea.
-device that transforms inputs into AP like hair cells would
-works in labelled lines by stimulating afferent neurons
-can hear sounds immediately after implant but can’t perceive words vs. birds singing
–over time, individual will slowly begin to understand meaning of sound

A

Cochlear implant

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31
Q

1) is learned by association
2)Disorder of development-differentiation causes labelled lines in babies; missing here
3) crossing of labelled line (fMRI)

A

Synesthesia theories

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32
Q

static image based on water concentration

A

MRI

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33
Q

real time observation due to blood oxygen level dependent contrast imaging
-indirect measure of neural activity via blood flow

A

fMRI

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34
Q

-primary somatosensory cortex on parietal lobe
-size correlates to sensitivity
-plasticity in system, more use increases size on map

A

Somatotopic Map

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35
Q

passive adjustment to stimulus over time’
-“getting used to”
-decreases response of receptor
-shorter duration
-involuntary

-way in which sensory systems can adapt best to change and suppress extraneous info

A

adaptation

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36
Q

active adjustment to stimulus
-act of learning
-often from practice/repeated exposure
-decrease in response of receptor due to repeated stimulation that is not meaningful
-long lasting

-way in which sensory systems can adapt best to change and suppress extraneous info

A

habituation

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37
Q

use of different labelled lines in one modality to simultaneously understand several aspects of stimulus
ex-temperature and pain

A

parallel processing

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38
Q

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond
-most abundant in periphery of retina (120mil/retina)
-responds well tot dim light

A

rods

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39
Q

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
-most abundant in and around fovea (~6mil/retina)
-essential for color vision
-more useful in bright light
-“tuned” to be sensitive to one of 3 Dif wavelengths of light (red, blue, green)
-light-dependent, don’t respond well to dimness

A

cones

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40
Q

rods and cones at back of retina
-point TOWARD retina rather than toward light
-synapse onto bipolar cells, which synapse onto ganglion cells
–have long axons make up optic nerve, which crosses at optic chiasma and makes synapses in thalamus

A

visual system receptors and pathway

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41
Q

1) light alters conformation of chemicals
-causes rhodopsin to dissociate from opsin
2) leads to closing of Na+ channels
-activated opsin works via G-protein to close Na+ channels
3)leads to IPSPs
-hyperpolarizing receptor potentials via closing of Na+ channels
*No APs in rods, cones, or retinal bipolar cells, instead decreasing inhibitory NT released to bipolar cells from photoreceptors. THIS leads to depolarization, which increases excitatory NT release to ganglion cells toward brain, triggering AP

A

How does transduction occur in rods and cones?

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42
Q

-half of axons cross over to other side
-from EACH eye, R visual field processed in L hemisphere and vice versa

A

Optic Chiasma

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43
Q

sent along optic nerve and diverging at optic chiasma
-sent to lateral geniculate nucleus in thalamus by optic nerve, which sends info to primary visual cortex
-sent superior colliculi and suprachiasmatic nucleus from ganglion cells

A

Locations to which visual information is sent

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44
Q

a place in the thalamus that receives impulses from the optic nerve
-where optic nerve makes ONLY synapse, sending info to primary visual cortex

A

lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

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45
Q

contain photopigment melanopsin, which is mainly sensitive to blue light (short wavelengths)

A

intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs)

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46
Q

-for a location-first done via retinotopic representation of visual field in visual cortex, with info primarily from fovea
-we build form from retina to cortex in hierarchical fashion, leading to loss of detail if not in direct path overrepresented by fovea

-occipitoparietal lobe = decodes where something is
-posterior temporal lobe = decodes what something is

A

visual coding

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47
Q

-info primarily from fovea, with focus on center, not periphery
-shows that central 10% of visual field occupies 50% of map
*magnification of foveal representation and compression of periphery
-maps onto retina, thalamus and cortex

-we build form from retina to cortex in hierarchical fashion, leading to loss of detail if not in direct path overrepresented by fovea

A

retinotopic map

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48
Q

stimuli in real world that cause neural firing changes in sensory pathway cells
–in retina and LGN, simple spots of light
–in visual cortex, more complex stimuli
-2 types of receptive fields in ganglion cells, responding best to spots (magnocellular and parvocellular)

A

receptive fields

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49
Q

one of two types of receptive fields in ganglion cells
-in LGN in thalamus
-inner 2 layers
-“spot detectors”
-large receptive fields
-movement sensitive
-all over retina - lots of convergence

A

Magnocellular Layers

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50
Q

one of two types of receptive fields in ganglion cells
-in LGN in thalamus
-“spot detectors”
-small receptive field
-color vision/detail sensitive
-lots in fovea-little convergence

A

Parvocellular layers

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51
Q

1) information from retina leads to several areas of brain that eventually lead to conscious perception of visual scene, as well as unconscious process
2) pathway to primary visual cortex allows for perception of color differences, orientation/form, motion (parallel processing )
3) parallel processing in different categories of info continues in other regions of cortex
-ex-temporal = object/face recognition
-ex-parietal = motion, where is object

A

Visual Sensation to Perception

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52
Q

discovered that neurons in primary visual cortex (PVC) respond selectively to oriented edges
-used semi-anesthetized cats and showed object on screen and recorded from PVC cells
–bar of light is retinal ganglion cells synapsing onto thalamus cells then onto single cortical cell to perceive bar image
-discovered PVC is vast array of hypercolumns

A

Hube and Wiesel

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53
Q

-according to Huge and Wiesel, it is a vast arrays of hyper columns
-chunks of tissue from cortical surface to deep within brain
-compulsive organization by orientation in plane, responding to adjacent orientations
-includes ocular dominance columns

A

primary visual cortex

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54
Q

cortex is composed of repeating units (modules) that contain all neuronal machinery necessary to analyze a small region of visual space for a variety of different stimulus attribtues

A

visual system modular arrangement

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55
Q

measure of sound intensity, perceived as loudness

A

decibel (dB)

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56
Q

cycles per second, as an auditory stimulus
-measure of frequency

A

hertz (Hz)

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57
Q

conversion of one form of energy into another

A

transduction

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58
Q

tone with a single frequency of vibration

A

pure tone

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59
Q

-force that sound exerts peer unit area, which we experience as loudness

A

amplitude AKA intensity

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60
Q

of cycles per second in a sound wave, measured in Hz
-perceived as pitch

A

frequency

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61
Q

predominant frequency of an auditory tone

A

fundamental

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62
Q

multiple of a particular frequency called the fundamental

A

harmonic

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63
Q

characteristic sound quality of a musical instrument, as determined by the relative intensities of its various harmonies
-characterized by complex sound waves

A

timbre

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64
Q

external part of ear

A

pinna

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65
Q

-the tube leading from the pinna to the tympanic membrane

A

ear canal aka auditory canal

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66
Q

cochlea and vestibular apparatus

A

inner ear

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67
Q

cavity between tympanic membrane and cochlea

A

middle ear

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68
Q

-partition between external ear and middle ear
-vibrates in sympathy with sound waves, moving series of tiny bones in middle ear (ossicles)

A

tympanic membrane AKA-eardrum

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69
Q

3 small bones (incus, malleus, and stapes) that transmit vibration across middle ear, from the tympanic membrane to oval window
-carry vibrations to cochlea

A

ossicles

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70
Q

opening from middle ear to inner ear

A

oval window

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71
Q

snail-shaped structure in inner ear canal that contains primary receptor cells for hearing
-fluid filled tube in inner ear
-coding for pitch and intensity begins here

A

cochlea

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72
Q

AKA vestibular canal
1 or 3 principal canals running along length or cochlea

A

scala vestibuli

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73
Q

AKA middle canal
-central of 3 spiraling canals inside cochlea situated between vestibular and tympanic canals

A

scala media

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74
Q

structure in inner ear that lies on basilar membrane of cochlea and contains hair cells and terminations of auditory nerve

A

organ of Corti

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75
Q

one of the receptor cells for hearing in the cochlea, named for the stereocillia that protrude from the top of the cell and transduce vibrational energy in the cochlea into neural activity
-do not get born throughout life

A

hair cell

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76
Q

a membrane in cochlea that contains principal structures involved in auditory transduction

A

basilar membrane

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77
Q

1 of 2 types of receptor cells for hearing in cochlea
-compared with OHC, these are positioned closer to central axis of coiled cochlea

A

inner hair cell (IHC)

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78
Q

1 of 2 types of receptors for hearing in the cochlea
-compared to IHC, these are positioned farther from central axis of coiled cochlea

A

outer hair cell (OHC)

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79
Q

cranial nerve VIII, which runs from cochlea to brainstem auditory nuclei

A

vestibulocochlear nerve

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80
Q

brainstem nuclei that receive input from auditory hair cells and send output to superior olivary nuclei

A

cochlear nuclei

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81
Q

brainstem nuclei that receive input from both right and left cochlear nuclei and provide the first binaural analysis of auditory information

A

superior olivary nuclei

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82
Q

paired gray matter structures of dorsal midbrain that processes auditory information

A

inferior colluculi

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83
Q

either of 2 nuclei–L and R– in the thalamus that receive input from inferior colliculi and send output to auditory cortex

A

medial geniculate nucleus

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84
Q

organization of auditory neurons according to an orderly map of stimulus frequency, from low to high
-mapping of frequency is maintained throughout neural pathway such that, in auditory cortex, a cell that responds to one frequency will be right next to a cell that responds to a freq that is slightly higher or lower than freq it responds to best

A

tonotopic organization

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85
Q

-cortical region, located on superior surface of temporal lobe, that processes complex sounds transmitted from lower auditory pathways

A

primary auditory cortex AKA A1

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86
Q

theory that the pitch of a sound is determined by the location of activated hair cells along length of basilar membrane
-info about particular freq of an incoming sound wave is coded by which segment fo basilar membrane vibrates in response to that freq
–> apex codes for low freq and outer edge of snail shell codes for high freq due to varying stiffness of basilar membrane at these locations

A

place coding theory

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87
Q

theory that pitch of sound is determined by rates of firing of auditory neurons

A

temporal coding theory

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88
Q

perceived different in loudness between the 2 ears, which the nervous system can use to localize a sound source

A

Interaural Intensity Difference (IID)

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89
Q

difference between 2 are in time of arrival of a sound, which the nervous system can use to localize a sound source
-occurs by comparing the arrival time of sounds from left and right ears
-> if sound comes from directly in front of you or behind you, it will arrive in cortex at same time but sound arrives at DIFFERENT times if coming from left or right

A

interaural temporal difference (ITD)

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90
Q

process by which the hills and valleys of the external ear alter the amplitude of some but not all frequencies in a sound

A

spectral filtering

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91
Q

a disorder characterized by the inability to discern tunes accurately or to sing

A

amusia

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92
Q

decreased sensitivity to sound, in varying degrees

A

hearing loss

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93
Q

hearing loss so profound that speech perception is lost

A

deafness

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94
Q

hearing impairment in which ears fail to convert sound vibrations in air into waves of fluid in cochlea
-associated with defects of external ear or middle ear

A

conduction deafness

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95
Q

a hearing impairment most often caused by permanent damage or destruction of hair cells or by interruption of vestibulocochlear nerve that carries auditory information to brain

A

sensorineural deafness

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96
Q

sensation of noises one hears not caused by external sound

A

tinnitus

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97
Q

form of central deafness that is characterized by specific inability to hear words, although other sounds can be detected

A

word deafness

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98
Q

form of central deafness, caused by damage to both sides of the auditory cortex, that is characterized by difficulty in recognizing all complex sounds, whether verbal or nonverbal

A

cortical deafness

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99
Q

sensory system that detects balance
-consists of several small inner ear structure that adjoin cochlea

A

vestibular system

100
Q

any one of 3 fluid filled tubes in inner ear that are part of vestibular system
-each tube, which are at right angles to each other, detect angular acceleration in particular direction

A

semicircular canal

101
Q

enlarged region of each semicircular canal that contains receptor cells (hair cells) of vestibular system

A

ampulla

102
Q

brainstem nuclei that receive information from vestibular organs through cranial nerve VIII (vestibulocochlear nerve)

A

vestibular nuclei

103
Q

experience of nausea brought on by unnatural passive movement (ex-car, boat)

A

motion sickness

104
Q

sensation of smell

A

odor

105
Q

sensory system detecting smell
-act of smelling
-only sensory system that makes a direct connection from olfactory nerve to cortex (PC-piriform cortex and OFC-orbital frontal cortex
–makes connection with amygdala and hippocampus prior to thalamus

A

olfaction

106
Q

sheet of cells, including olfactory receptors that lines dorsal portion of nasal cavities and adjacent regions

A

olfactory epithelium

107
Q

anterior projection of brain that terminates in upper nasal passages and, through small openings in skull, provides receptors for smell

A

olfactory bulb

108
Q

complex arbor of dendrites from a group of olfactory cells
-all receptors of particular type send axons/synapse to same mitral cells

A

glomerulus

109
Q

chemical signal that is released outside body of animal and affect other members of same species

A

pheromone

110
Q

specialized system that detects pheromones and transmits info to brain

A

vomeronasal system

111
Q

collection of specialized receptor cells, near to but separate from olfactory epithelium, taught detect pheromones and send electoral signals to accessory olfactory bulb in brain

A

vomeronasal organ (VNO)

112
Q

any one of a family of probably pheromone receptors produced by neurons in the main olfactory epithelium

A

trace amine-associated receptor (TAAR)

113
Q

single relocation of a body part, usually resulting from a brief muscle contraction
-less complex than act
-end point of a series of hierarchical commands

A

movement

114
Q

simple, highly stereotyped and unlearned response to a particular stimulus
-few muscle groups involved
-highly stereotyped
-graded with stimulus
-brain not needed, even occurs in paraplegics
ex-eye blink in response to a puff of air, cough, knee jerk

A

reflex

115
Q

complex behavior, as distinct from a simple movement

A

act

116
Q

-plan for a series of muscular contractions, established in nervous system prior to its execution

A

motor plan AKA motor program

117
Q

electrical recording of muscle activity

A

electromyography (EMG)

118
Q

muscle that counteracts the effect of another muscle

A

antagonist

119
Q

muscle that acts together with another muscle

A

synergist

120
Q

-neuron that transmits neural messages to muscles/glands
-synapse on muscles at neuromuscular junction, releasing acetylcholine, thus activating muscle fibers
–Na+ and Ca2+ are major players

A

motor neuron

121
Q

region where motor neuron terminal meets its target muscle fiber
-point where nerve transmits message to muscle fiber

A

neuromuscular junction

122
Q

neurotransmitter (NT) that is produced and released by autonomic nervous system, by motor neurons, and by neurons throughout brain

A

acetylcholine (Ach)

123
Q

motor neurons of brain and spinal cord, so called bc they receive and integrate all motor signals form brain to direct movement

A

final common pathway

124
Q

body sense
-information about position and movements of body

A

proprioception

125
Q

muscle receptor that lies parallel to a muscle and sends impulses to central nervous system when muscle is stressed

A

muscle spindle

126
Q

any of the call muscle fibers that lie within each muscle spindle

A

intrafusal fiber

127
Q

type of receptor found within tendons that sends impulses to CNS when muscle contracts

A

Golgi tendon organ (GTO)

128
Q

contraction of muscle in response to stretch of muscle

A

stretch reflex

129
Q

-motor system that includes neurons within cerebral cortex and their axons which form the pyramidal tract

A

pyramidal system AKA corticospinal system

130
Q

motor system that includes the basal ganglion and some closely related brainstem structures
-axons of this system pass into spinal cord outside pyramids of the medulla
-looping system of modulation between basal ganglia, thalamus, and cerebellum
-doesnt send info to muscles directly
-runs outside pyramidal tract and generally involved in fine tuning

A

extrapyramidal system

131
Q

apparent executive region for the initiation of movement
-strip of tissue in frontal lobe
-somatotopically mapped based (think homunculus)
-primarily the precentral gyrus
-“Go center”
-specifies details of movement
~30% of neurons are muscle selective
~50% of neutrons are directionally specific

A

primary motor cortex (M1)

132
Q

strip of frontal cortex, just in front of the central sulcus, that is crucial for motor control

A

precentral gyrus

133
Q

frontal lobe regions adjacent to the primary motor cortex that contribute to motor and modulate the activity of primary motor cortex

A

non primary motor cortex

134
Q

region of non primary motor cortex that receives input from the basal ganglia and modulates the activity of the primary motor cortex

programming for execution of complex movement
-neurons active when exciting or thinking about executing complex movement that are internally generated
-lesions lead to inability to perform complex movement but not simple movement
-instructs primary motor cortex for movement

A

supplementary motor area (SMA) AKA supplementary motor cortex (SMC)

135
Q

region of nonprimary motor cortex just anterior of primary motor cortex
-planning and anticipation of movement
-neurons active BEFORE movement
-lesions of PMC lead to inability to organize movements in response to sentry cue
-instructs primary motor cortex for movement

A

premotor cortex

136
Q

paralysis; loss of ability to move

A

plegia

137
Q

muscular weakness, often the result of damage to motor cortex

A

paresis

138
Q

an impairment in the ability to carry out complex movements, event hough there is no muscle paralysis

A

apraxia

139
Q

neuron that is active both when an individual makes a particular movement and when that individual sees another individual make the same movement
-discovered in premotor cortex in 2004
-don’t work if never done task

Disproved theories: those that link them to babies learning, language learning, empathy, sports fans, and failure of mirror neurons causing autism

A

mirror neuron

140
Q

group of forebrain nuclei, including caudate nucleus, globulus pallidus, and putamen, found deep within cerebral hemispheres
-> initiation, amplitude/direction, habits

A

basal ganglia

141
Q

structure located at back of brain, dorsal to pops, that is involved in central regulation of movement and in some forms of learning
~10% of brain mass but contains half of all neurons
-sensory input into brain allows sensory correction of motor inputs
-feedback control of movement
-motor learning
-timing and coordination of complex movement
-how drunkenness is tested, as its the first region impaired by alcohol

A

cerebellum

142
Q

loss of movement coordination, often caused by disease of cerebellum

A

ataxia

143
Q

difficulty of movement in which gestures are broken up into individual segments instead of being executed smoothly
-symptom of cerebellar lesions

A

decomposition of movement

144
Q

degenerative neurological disorder, characterized by tremors at rest, muscular rigidity, and reduction in voluntary movement, caused by loss of dopaminergic neurons of substantia nigra
-characterized by damage of basal ganglia

A

Parkinson’s Disease

145
Q

brainstem structure that is a major source of dopaminergic projections to basal ganglia

A

substantia nigra

146
Q

genetic disorder, with onset in middle age, in which destruction of basal ganglia results in a syndrome of abrupt, involuntary writhing movements and changes in mental functioning

A

Huntington’s Disease

147
Q

form of energy made when air molecules vibrate and move in pattern called waves

A

sound

148
Q

collected in OUTER EAR
waves amplified in MIDDLE EAR
INNER EAR transforms vibrations into graded potentials and then AP
-movement of fluid inside cochlea tilts cilia

A

movement of sound waves in ear

149
Q

bristle like projects extending from hair cells
-movement stimulates nerves, which send signals to brain, which, in turn, process signals into sounds we hear
-tiny bristle that protrudes from hair cell in auditory or vestibular system
-tips joined by fiber link
-can be regrown by hair cells IF not badly damaged

A

(stereo)cilia

150
Q

-vibration -> graded potential occurs in cilia of hair cells by mechanical changes, which open K+ and Ca2+ channels (mechanically-gated)
–DEPOLARIZE hair cell and cause graded (generator) potential BUT hair cells are NOT neurons and do not fire AP
–GP causes release of glutamate at synapse with auditory nerve
–if sufficient stimulation occurs to reach threshold at axon hillock/auditory nerve, AP will fire

A

Auditory Transduction

151
Q

-hair cells can grow new cilia IF they are not badly damaged BUT hair cells do not get born throughout life
-> after a year of daily exposure to 20+ min/day of v. loud sound, most humans become partially deaf
–short term damage is reversible, but it becomes irreversible w/ chronic exposure
–repeated exposure to sounds of 85+ decibels is like to cause hearing loss

A

damage to hair cells

152
Q

-central auditory projections travel via the auditory nerve to a FIRST synapse in the superior olivary nucleus in the medulla
-then to a SECOND synapse in the inferior colliculi
-then to a THIRD synapse at medial geniculate nucleus in thalamus (synaptic way station)
-then finally to primary auditory cortex in temporal lobe of neocortex

-info coming from LEFT auditory nerve crosses over to RIGHT side of brain at level of medulla (complete crossover)
-several minor synaptic connections between auditory nerve and thalamus

A

Neural Pathway of Audition

153
Q

-auditory perception processed differently than other sounds
-stimulates activity in many more brain regions than just sound
and requires more complex processing in coding
-auditory perceptual system, in trying to perceive sounds, first tries to determine if the sound contains words, that then can be perceived via language system

A

Speech Perception

154
Q

genes that code for disease-detecting structures that alert immune system to destroy them
-many variants and both mom and dad’s are expressed
-mice, penguins, and humans pick partners with most dissimilar alleles than themselves
-> based on odor

A

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

155
Q

-cilia (dendrite-like) dangle into olfactory mucosa
–cell bodies in epithelium
-axon through criboform plate to synapse onto olfactory bulb
-regular turnover of receptors every 3-6 weeks; new receptors mature in epithelium
-over 900 genes for olfactory receptors, but ~400 expressed
-binding of smells to receptors is much like NT bindings to NT to metabotropic receptor
–odorants bind in lock-and-key fashion to receptors (odorants dissolve in epithelium)
-odorants are complex chemicals, so different features attach to different receptors, which humans have 500-700 of

A

olfactory receptors

156
Q

-SVZ neurons migrate down rostral migratory stream to olfactory bulb and become intraneurons
-not involved in learning differences between novel and familiar odors
-involved in species specific responses (ex-mating)
-may be involved in learning fine discrimination and patterns differentiation.

A

subventricular zone (SVZ) neurogenesis in olfaction

157
Q

used for timing of fast, coordinated muscle movements and responses to signals
-> cerebellum

A

millisecond timing

158
Q

seconds -> minutes
-used for learning, coordination of movement, decision making, foraging
-> basal ganglion-frontal cortex
-usually unaware of it
-use it for language, movement, waiting, etc
-basal ganglion damage/malfunction (ex-Parkinson’s Disease and ADHD)
-some neurons in basal ganglia act as timekeepers
-can be altered by drugs and arousal

A

interval timing (stopwatch timing)

159
Q

around 24 hr
-endogenous cycles of behavior biological activity with a period or ~24 hour
-> suprachiasmatic nucleus/gene regulation/melatonin

A

circadian timing (clocklike timing)

160
Q

bird migratory patterns, animals storing food for winter
-> hypothalamus/gonadal hormones

A

seasonal rhythm

161
Q

behavioral method by which you can teach mice two time intervals
-> can be modified for humans

A

Peak Interval Procedure

162
Q

critical for interval testing, as drugs can change perception of time
-drugs like cocaine and amphetamine increase activation and speed up internal clock
-other drugs that block production can slow down clock

A

Dopamine

163
Q

study of biological rhythm

A

chronobiology

164
Q

self-sustained biological rhythm which in an organism’s natural environment normally has a period of approximately 24 hours

endogenous cycles of behavior or biological activity within a period of 24 hr
-generated by an internal clock in brain that is usually synchronized to light-dark cycles in the environment, as well as to other daily cues
-> frequently plotted on an attogram
-clock must be synchronized to local time to be most powerful, but can be free running
-organism must be in sync with its prey, pollinators, and other members of its social group in order to survive
-> usually set by light-dark cycle, butt can be set with meal time or sound cues

A

circadian rhythms

165
Q

endogenous cycles of behavior or biological activity within a period greater than 24 hours

A

infradian rhythm

166
Q

endogenous cycles of behavior or biological activity within a period less than 24 hr

A

ultradian

167
Q

natural self-sustained rhythm that exists in absence of all environmental cues

when organism is deprived of any cues to tell it about standard 24 hr cycle
-> most organisms continue to show sleep-wake cycle ~24 hr (humans around 25hr)

A

free running cycle

168
Q

diagram showing the periods of activity and rest of an organism over a number of twenty four hour periods so that trends in activity can be identified
-features entraining agent and phase shifts (Dotted lines)

A

actogram

169
Q

can cause a phase shift whereby the activity is started either earlier or later in the day

an environmental time cue, such as light, that has the ability to reset a biological clock, another word for this is the German word Zeitgieber.

A

entraining agent

170
Q

location of circadian clock
-distinct group of cells found within hypothalamus, just dorsal to optic chiasm

A

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

171
Q

-branch off optic nerve occurs just before optic chiasm
-rods and cones signal specialized ganglion cells found in retina that contain melopsin, which have this pathway, leading to SCN
-mammals use pathway to send light info to SCN and reset using rods and cons that use melanopsin
-axon endings of this branch of optic nerve releases glutamate into SCN, which triggers a chain of events that promote the production of per protein

A

retinohypothalmic tract

172
Q

-SCN is only ones part of mechanism by which “time” is kept
-rods and cones signal specialized ganglion cells found in retina that contain melanopsin, which have this pathway, leading to SCN
-lesions of the lateral geniculate nucleus or visual cortex, do not interfere with ability to ability of animal to set its clock to light cues
–however, lesions of the retina or of optic Neve before chasm do prevent the clock from being set to light
*SCN takes info on day length from retina, interprets it, and passes it to pineal gland, which secretes hormone melatonin in response two message
-a couple hours prior to sleep, melatonin secretions rise but is inhibited by daylight
–released cyclically in absence of light cues
–if SCN is destroyed, circadian rhythms disappear

A

How does clock gets reset?

173
Q

pea-like structure found behind hypothalamus
-receives info indirectly from SCN
-SCN takes info on day length from retina, interprets it, and passes it to this region, which secretes hormone melatonin in response two message
–a couple hours prior to sleep, melatonin secretions rise but is inhibited by daylight

A

pineal gland

174
Q

display free running rhythm due to no light cues
-> can help by giving melatonin a few hours before bedtime each day

A

blindness and circadian rhythms

175
Q

-blood pressure
-muscle strength
-testosterone levels
-body temperature
-sleep
-drug metabolism-some drugs work more efficiently at some times of day than others
-disorder-disfunction in disruption of clocks, such as clinical syndromes in which people wake up very early or go to sleep very early

A

functions in body that show a circadian rhythm

176
Q

form of depression that strikes when day is short but not when day is long
-if adding broad spectrum Iight in the morning improves the depression, then clinical psychologist will make this diagnosis

A

seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

177
Q

an internal timekeeping mechanism capable of driving or coordinating a circadian rhythm

A

biological clock

178
Q

self-sustained cyclic change in a physiological process or behavioral function of an organism that repeats at regular intervals

A

biological rhythm

179
Q

taken form Latin words meaning “around” and “day”–thus meaning “approximately 24 hours”

A

circadian

180
Q

performed in orr belonging to daytime
-opposite of nocturnal

A

diurnal

181
Q

generated by environmental cues that are external to the organism

A

exogenous

182
Q

term that refers to an organism’s endogenous period length

A

tau

183
Q

recording of gross electrical activity of the brain via large electrodes placed on the scalp/skull
-involves potential changes (summation of graded potentials NOT APs) that reflect the activity of many neurons at one time

A

Electroencephalography (EEG)

184
Q

-a stage of sleep characterized by small-amplitude, fast EEG waves, no postural tension, and rapid eye movements
-associated with dreaming
-EEG contains fast, small amplitude waves of desynchronized neural activity
-eyes move rapidly in coordinated patterns
-heart rate and respiration rate are variable, with high bursts
-cerebral blood flow and cortical neural activity area high
-muscle tone is completely lost (atonia)
-impaired thermoregulation

A

rapid eye movement (REM) sleep AKA paradoxical sleep

185
Q

sleep, divided into stages 1-4, that is defined by the presence of distinctive EEG activity that differs from that seen in REM sleep

A

non-REM sleep

186
Q

-brain potential of 8-12 Hz that occurs during relaxed wakefulness and Stage 1 sleep

A

alpha rhythm AKA alpha waves

187
Q

sharp-wave EEG patten that is seen in Stage 1 sleep

A

vertex spike

188
Q

initial stage of non-REM sleep, which is characterized by small-amplitude EEG waves or irregular frequency, slow heart rate, and reduced muscle tension
-characterized by emergence of a rhythm in EEG activity
–small amplitude waves with a frequency between 9-12 Hz = alpha waves
-slow eye movements
-EMG shows relaxation of body muscles

A

stage 1 sleep

189
Q

stage of sleep that is defined by bursts of EEG waves called sleep spindles
-bursts of waves with frequency of 12-14Hz -sleep spindles
-emergence of K complexes and sleep spindles
-more muscle relaxation than Stage 1
-little to no eye movement

A

stage 2 sleep

190
Q

a characteristic bursts of 12-14 Hz waves in EEG of a person in stage 2 sleep

A

sleep spindles

191
Q

sharp, negative EEG potential that is seen in stage 2 sleep

A

K complex

192
Q

stage of non-REM sleep that is defined by presence of large amplitude, slow delta waves
-EEG waves are in 5-9 Hz range with emergence of some delta waves
-characterized by further muscle relaxation and emergence of v. slow eye movements

A

stage 3 sleep AKA slow wave sleep (SWS)

193
Q

slowest type of EEG wave, about 1/sec, characteristic of stage 3 and 4 sleep
~1Hz waves with v. large amplitude
-large amplitude occurs bc many neurons are firing in unison, highly synchronized

A

delta wave

194
Q

a long, frightening dream that awakens the sleeper from REM sleep

A

nightmare

195
Q

a sudden arousal from stage 3 sleep that is marked by intense fear and autonomic activation

A

night terror

196
Q

partial or total prevention of sleep

main consequences:
-increased reports of sleepiness
-reduced latency to sleep
-irritability
-> may also experience: difficulty concentrating and episodes of disorientation
-effects most dramatic in wee hours of morning, when subject would normally be sleeping

-interruption of circadian rhythm could contribute to effects of sleep loss/deprivation

A

sleep deprivation

197
Q

process of sleeping more than normally after a period of sleep deprivation, as though in compensation

A

sleep recovery

198
Q

unique assortment of environmental opportunities and challenges to which each organism is adapted

A

ecological niche

199
Q

-experimental preparation in which an animal’s brainstem has been separated from the spinal cord by a cut below the medulla
-In Bermer experiments, though many of the same sensory inputs were severed as in other transections, it was found that this transection did NOT disrupt normal sleep-wake EEG

A

encephale isole preparation AKA-isolated brain

200
Q

-experimental preparation in which an animal’s nervous system has been cut in the upper midbrain, dividing the forebrain from the brainstem
-> supported Bermer passive theory of sleep bc forebrain in cats showed almost continuous SWS

A

cerveau isole transection AKA-isolated forebrain

201
Q

ventricle region in forebrain that has been implicated in sleep
-area which can show SWS in Bain on its own
-electrical stimulation of this area causes conical SWS
-lesions to this area can abolish SWS

A

basal forebrain

202
Q

region of the basal hypothalamus, near the pituitary stalk, that plays a role in generating slow wave sleep

A

tuberomammillary nucleus

203
Q

drug that renders an individual unconscious

A

general anesthetic

204
Q

-an extensive region of brainstem (extending from the medulla through the thalamus) that is involved in arousal
-neural circuit that actively promotes wakefulness, as discovered by Moruzzi and Magoun in 1949
-postulated that decreasing activity in this region would lead to sleep and increasing activity would promote wakefulness
-in brainstem, functions to arouse forebrain

A

reticular formation AKA reticular activating system

205
Q

small nucleus in brainstem whose neurons produce norepinephrine and modulate large areas of the forebrain
-neurons project throughout brain and initiate bursts of PGO waves that are associate with REM sleep
-neurons in area just ventral to this region may be important for initiation of REM sleep
-lesions to this area can abolish REM sleep
-stimulation (electrical or neurochemical) induces REM sleep

A

locus coeruleus (LC)

206
Q

disorder that involves frequent, intense episodes of sleep, which last from 5-30 min and can occurred anytime during the usual working hours

A

narcolepsy

207
Q

sudden loss of muscle tone, leading to collapse of body without loss of consciousness
-sometimes a component of narcoleptic attacks

A

cataplexy

208
Q

a state, during the transition to or from sleep, in which the ability to move or talk is temporarily lost

A

sleep paralysis

209
Q

bed wetting

A

sleep enuresis

210
Q

sleep disorder in which a person physically acts out a dream

A

REM behavior disorder (RBD)

211
Q

difficulty in falling asleep

A

sleep-onset insomnia

212
Q

difficulty remaining asleep

A

sleep-maintenance insomnia

213
Q

commonly, a person’s perception that the has not been asleep when in fact he has
-typically occurs at the start of a sleep episode

A

sleep state misconception

214
Q

sleep disorder in which respiration slows or stops periodically, waking patient
-excessive daytime sleepless results from frequent nocturnal awakening

A

sleep apnea

215
Q

-sudden, unexpected death of an apparently healthy human infant who simply stops breathing, usually during sleep

A

sudden infants death syndrome (SIDS) AKA crib death

216
Q

1)move through environment
2) manipulate surroundings
3) maintain posture and balance
4)communication (speech, gestures, etc)
5) autonomic movements (ex-respiration)
6) sensation turning (eye movements, head turn, etc)

A

functions of motor system

217
Q

voluntary, motor programs, reflex

closed vs open (including ballistic)

A

Classes of movement

218
Q

speech, object manipulating
-goal-directed
-highly modifiable
-can become motor programs with practice/learning
-stimulus guided when new but no need for stimulus guidance once learned

A

voluntary movement

219
Q

walking, swimming, chewing, etc
-several muscle groups around limb/joint
-relatively stereotyped
-not necessarily graded with stimulus intensity

A

motor programs

220
Q

system constantly receives feedback to fine tune movements
-accurate but slow
-ex-drinking from unfamiliar mug

A

closed loop movement

221
Q

no feedback or control
-feedback is disruptive
-careful programming and anticipation of possible errors
-fast but cannot respond to changes in environment

ex-2000 Sydney Olympics gymnastics video

A

open loop movement

222
Q

form of open loop movement
-very rapid
-preprogrammed movement often controlled by cerebellum
-speed!
ex-throwing darts
-once started, hard to stop

A

ballistic movement

223
Q

An accidental but humorous distortion of words in a phrase formed by interchanging the initial sounds
-evidence that speech is open loop movement, as sentence must be preprogrammed by brain program

A

Spoonerism

224
Q

1)sensory systems
2)planning and commanding areas (premotor cortex, supplementary motor cortex, and primary motor cortex)
3)implementation pathways (brainstem, spinal cord, musculoskeletal system)
4) modulation-feedback from muscles to brain (basal ganglia, cerebellum)

-must have sensation in muscles-> feel stretch, contraction, weight, otherwise can’t move properly

A

Parts of nervous system involved in movement control

225
Q

-“nonprimary” motor cortex-higher level motor planning

-primary motor cortex-site of motor initiation (specific movements)

-spinal cord-controls muscles in response to sensory information and signals from the brain

-musculoskeletal system (bones, joints, muscles, tendons)-execute movement

-brainstem-integrates motor commands from higher brain centers; relays sensory info to brain

-basal ganglia, cerebellum, etc - modulated movement

A

Components of Motor Hierarchy

226
Q

controls muscles in response to sensory information and signals from the brain

A

spinal cord

227
Q

integrates motor commands from higher brain centers; relays sensory info to brain

A

brainstem

228
Q

direct routes from cortex to spinal cord to muscles
-requires sensory feedback of movement
-crosses over in medulla (R side movement, L hemisphere)
-many neurons run from cortex all the way to spinal cord

A

pyramidal tract

229
Q

“what should I do?”
-integrates info from all sensory systems
-decides how to respond
–shifts focus/attention
–filters information
–identifies physical responses

A

prefrontal cortex

230
Q

1) conserve energy
2) be less susceptible to predation

BUT duration of sleep across species is hard to predicted based on either risk of predation or energy expenditure

A

Possible evolutionary value of sleep

231
Q

provides a measure of eye movements
-electrodes near eyes

A

electrooculogram (EOG)

232
Q

provides a measure of muscle tension
-electrodes on chins

A

electromyogram (EMG)

233
Q

-during waking, brain waves have a very specific amplitude with rapid frequency
-bc neurons in brain are performing a multitude of different function, their firing rates are desynchronized
-as humans fall asleep, they brain activity alternates between distinct stages of sleep that are associated with different EEG pattens

A

sleep insights from EEG

234
Q

stage of non-REM sleep that is defined by presence of large amplitude, slow delta waves
-consists almost entirely of delta waves
-characterized by further muscle relaxation and emergence of v. slow eye movements

A

stage 4 sleep AKA slow wave sleep (SWS)

235
Q

-initially “drop down” through stages 1-4 and then come “back up” to REM sleep
-this type of cycle repeats throughout the night and is about 90 min in length, on average
-as night goes on, there is less Stage 3-4 sleep and more REM sleep

-also changes in sleep stages across lifespan
-time spent in REM sleep changes more dramatically than time spent in SWS from infancy to old age
–need for sleep is high in infants and young children and declines as we age

A

Sleep stage pattern

236
Q

in pons/medulla
-sends long axons to cortex
–these neurons manufacture and release serotonin
-infusion of serotonin or stimulation of this region , makes animals sleep BUT recordings from this region indicate it is more active in day than at night, suggesting that firing of neurons in this region during the day builds up serotonin, leading to sleep

A

raphe nucleus

237
Q

-has controversial role in sleep
-infusion or stimulation of raphe nucleus , makes animals sleep BUT recordings from raphe nucleus indicate it is more active in day than at night, suggesting that firing of raphe nucleus during the day builds up of this substance, leading to sleep

A

serotonin

238
Q

1) circadian rhythm and melatonin release
2) buildup of “sleepiness” or sleep need that occurs the more hours we’re awake -> suggest that fine of raphe nucleus during the day builds up serotonin, leading to sleep

A

Two controls for sleep

239
Q

basal forebrain, reticular activating system (RAS), pons (locus coeruleus), hypothalamic system, raphe nucleus

A

major sleep regulation areas

240
Q

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
-seems to contain areas important to regulation of sleep
-neurons in locus coeruleus project throughout brain and initiate bursts of PGO waves that are associate with REM sleep
-neurons in area just ventral to locus coeruleus may be important for initiation of REM sleep
-lesions to this area can abolish REM sleep
-stimulation (electrical or neurochemical) induces REM sleep

A

pons

241
Q

affects other three brain systems to determine sleep/wake
-acts as switch for awake vs. asleep

A

hypothalamic system

242
Q

-many people area able to function on a reduced amount of sleep without any noticeable cognitive impairment
-if sleep is deprived, subjects can function normally for several days
-> many confounding factors attributed to sleep loss/deprivation, such as stress
-sleep deprived subjects will sleep more when deprivation ends (increases Stage 4 most on only the first day, with first day increases of Stages 1 and 2, and 3 day increase of REM)
-since this theory predicts that sleep loss should result in recovery sleep, data is partially supportive BUT not a complete recovery of all sleep lost
–since SWS (particularly Stage 4) and REM sleep debts are “repaid” this suggests they serve some specialized functions

A

sleep as homeostatic function debate

243
Q

-evidence suggests that sleep promotes hippocampal neurogenesis

possible normal development of brain
-infant and child mammals sleep significantly more than adults (lately comprised of extra REM sleep, possibly assisting with selective strengthening and pruning of synaptic connections)
-growth hormone for pituitary is released during stages 3 and 4 slow wave sleep
-older adults have less stage 3 and 4 sleep than younger adults

A

restorative/developmental function of sleep

244
Q

replaying of new memories and same firing of neurons “in rehearsal” occur during synchronized delta wave activity of stages 3 and 4 SWS
-hippocampus needs downtime to replay memoirs to cortex in orders to train association in cortex
-> similar to LTP

A

sleep’s role in memory consolidation

245
Q

more than any other species, humans can adjust to activity and sleep schedules
-problem with 24 her lifestyle is that we’re fighting against evolved systems of cyclic behavior
ex-graveyard shift has more workplace accidents
–rise of sleep disorders

A

impact of advent of artificial light

Psy 106 (3 decks)

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