Exam 2 Flashcards
three major types of learning:
- classical (Pavlovian conditioning)
- instrumental learning (operant conditioning)
- social learning
who was a radical behaviorist?
john b. watson
a perspective that focuses on observable, measurable behavior and argues that the social environment and learning are the key determinants of behavior
behaviorism
internal mental processes that enable humans to imagine, gain knowledge, reason, and evaluate information
cognitive processes
the process of learning to respond to a formerly neutral stimulus that has been paired with another stimulus that already elicits a response (also called pavlovian conditioning)
classical conditioning
this type of conditioning teaches to associate 2 stimulus together
classical conditioning
before classical conditioning
neutral stimulus -> unconditioned stimulus -> unconditioned response
after classical conditioning
conditioned stimulus -> conditioned response
_____ began in 1913 with the publication of a classic paper by John B. Watson
behaviorism
a theoretical perspective that argues that environmental stimuli control behavior
situationism
a research approach that argues that in order to understand highly complex events or phenomenon, one must start examining the simplest parts first
reductionism
a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or diminished by its consequences (also called instrumental learning)
operant conditioning
ex. of operant conditioning
child wants candy at the checkout -> child throws temper tantrum -> parent gives child candy (reward) -> behavior occurs again during the next trip
anything that increases the probability of responding
reinforcement
the acquisition of something desired as a result of one’s behavior
positive reinforcement
behavior has been reinforced due to the removal of something negative
negative reinforcement
the reward received for avoiding a painful or aversive condition, or stimuli
negative reinforcement
examples of negative reinforcement:
-taking tylenol for a headache, or smoking due to stress
-seatbelt alert chiming and stopping as the seatbelt is clicked
-scolding a child
an event by which a person receives a noxious, painful, or aversive stimulus, usually as a consequence of behavior
punishment
two types of punishment:
application and removal
punishment by the addition of an unpleasant stimulus
punishment by application
punishment by removal of pleasurable stimulus
punishment by removal
the three requirements for punishment to be effective:
swift, certain, severe
punishment that is too severe can lead to
fear, frustration, and anxiety
severe punishments are not good because they ______
model aggressive behavior
inverse relationship between severity and punishment:
punishment must be severe enough to be felt, but not too severe
the decline and eventual disappearance of a conditioned or learned response when it is no longer reinforced
extinction
the introduction of a pleasant stimulus following a desired behavior
positive reinforcement
removal of aversive stimulus following a desired behavior
negative reinforcement
the goal of positive reinforcement is to _____ a desired behavior
increase
the goal of negative reinforcement is to _____ a desired behavior
increase
the goal of punishment is to _____ an undesired behavior
decrease
a theory that human behavior based on learning from watching others in the social environment
-this leads to an individual’s development of his or her own perceptions, thoughts, expectancies, competencies, and values
social learning theory
reinforcement is important for maintaining behavior once it is learned, but the acquisition of human behavior is influenced by the observation of the social environment
social learning theory
a theory of motivation that takes into account both the expectancy of achieving a particular goal and the value placed on it
expectancy theory
who created expectancy theory?
julian rotter
the process by which individuals learn patterns of behavior by observing another person performing the action
observational learning (modeling)
-also called imitational learning
individuals or groups of individuals in the environment whose behavior is observed and imitated
models
a theory of deviance developed by Akers that combines Skinner’s behaviorism and Sutherland’s differential association theory
-the theory states that people learn deviant behavior through the reinforcements they receive from the social environment
differential association-reinforcement (DAR) theory
according to differential association-reinforcement theory, most criminal behavior is maintained through ____ conditioning
operant
social signals or gestures transmitted by subcultural or peer groups to indicate whether certain kinds of behavior will be rewarded or punished within a particular social context
discriminative stimuli
an aversive internal state of arousal that occurs when one is prevented from responding in a way that previously produced rewards (or that one believes would produce rewards)
frustration
a person who violates the law consistently because of learning the behavioral patterns from his or her social environment
socialized offender
in Berkowitz’s theory, the person who offends after a series of frustrations and unmet needs is an ____
individual offender
a tendency to underestimate the importance of situational determinates and to to overestimate the importance of personality or dispositional factors in identifying the cause of human behavior
fundamental attribution error
explanation about a person due to their character
dispositional explanation
explanation due to some aspect of the situation (external)
situational explanation
a tendency to attribute positive things that happen to us to our abilities and personalities, and to attribute negative events to some cause outside ourselves or beyond our control
self-serving bias
illegal acts that are committed under the order of someone in authority
crimes of obedience
a process by which individuals feel they cannot be identified, primarily because they are disguised or are subsumed within a group
deindividuation
this theory states that individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim in the presence of people
bystander effect
the acquisition and retention of a mental representation of information, and the use of this representation as the basis of behavior
cognitive learning
the process of freeing oneself from one’s own moral standards in order to act against those standards
-the unacceptable conduct is usually undertaken under orders from someone higher in authority or under high social pressure
moral disengagement
doing something for the greater good
moral justification
this type of language represents actions in harmless terminology
euphemistic language
a comparison one makes to assess something as not harmful compared to what others are doing
advantageous comparison
justifying an action if it was ordered by someone in authority
displacement of responsibility
justifying an action if others in group also carried out the illegal action
diffusion of responsibility
harm is not seen, or belief that harm did not occur
disregard, distortion, denial of harm
disengagement by observers of harmful conduct
not one’s business to get involved
person harmed is not “human” or is inferior to the perpetrator
dehumanization of victim
hostile behaviors that do not directly inflict physical harm
passive-aggressive behaviors
ex. of passive-agressive behavior
refusing to speak to someone against whom one holds a grudge
spontaneous aggression, possibly in response to provocation (also referred to as reactive aggression or hostile aggression)
reactive-impulsive aggression
emotion behind aggression
hostile aggression
the type of aggression that is planned and is used to accomplish a specific purpose
controlled-instrumental aggression
behavior characterized by the intent to harm others or destroy objects
aggression
exposure to aggression ____ the likelihood of aggressive behavior
increases
4 factors that affect the probability of limitation:
- characteristics of the model
- power and dominance
- nurturance
- model’s similarity (age, sex, interests, etc.)
_____ similarity leads to ____ aggression
increased; increased
the tendency to attack violators of one’s personal space
territoriality
the symbolic display of aggressive intentions or strength without actual physical combat or conflict
ritualized aggression
thee study of the evolution of behavior using the principles of natural selection
evolutionary psychology
the theory first formulated by Berkowitz that frustration leads to aggressive behavior
frustration-aggression hypothesis
suggestion that the mere presence of a weapon leads a witness or victim to concentrate on the weapon itself rather than other features of the crime
weapons effect
this theory emphasizes the importance of cognitive factors and negative effects, such as physical discomfort (a revised theory of the frustration-aggression hypothesis proposed by leonard berkowitz)
cognitive-neoassociation theory
theory explaining how physiological arousal can generalize from one situation to another; based on the assumption that physiological arousal, however produced, dissipates slowly over time
excitation transfer theory
the theory that some aggression is directed at the target as a replacement for the individual who is the real source of the provocation
displaced aggression theory
the focused attention on one’s own thoughts and feelings that, if excessive, can lead to aggression against others
rumination
huesmann’s theory that social behavior in general and aggressive behavior in particular are controlled largely by cognitive scripts learned through daily experiences
cognitive scripts model
a cognitive model of aggression developed by dodge and colleagues
hostile attribution model
the tendency to perceive hostile intent in others even when it is lacking
hostile attribution bias
this model combines social learning and cognitions to explain aggressive behavior
general aggression model (GAM)
a new theory of aggression that organizes and summarizes risk factors for aggression and considers instigating triggers, impelling forces, and inhibiting forces
I^3 theory
what is the core emphasis of I^3 theory?
self-regulation
what kind of aggression consists of direct confrontation with victims; generally decreases with age
overt aggression
overt aggression consists of _____ and a _____ level of arousal and violence
anger; high
this type of aggression consists of concealment, dishonesty, and sneaky behavior; increases with age
covert aggression
covert aggression consists of _____ emotion, and crimes such as _____, _____, and _____
less; fraud, larceny, and theft
violence perpetrated in response to provocation, perceived provocation, or an unanticipated occurrence
reactive aggression
similar to controlled-instrumental aggression, actions undertaken to obtain a specific goal
proactive aggression
a tendency for some people to model or copy a behavior or activity portrayed by the news or entertainment media
contagion effect (copycat effect)
behavior against the criminal code committed by an individual who has not reached adulthood
delinquency
a class of illegal behavior that only persons with certain characteristics or status can commit
-used almost exclusively to refer to the behavior of juveniles
status offenses
ex. of status offenses
running away from home, violating curfew, buying alcohol, or skipping school
a diagnostic label used to identify children who demonstrate habitual misbehavior
conduct disorder (CD)
clinical term reserved for serious habitual behavior, especially that involving direct harm to others
antisocial behavior
juvenile offending that is characterized by violent and extensive property crimes
serious delinquency
classic self-report longitudinal study of youth, including some considered at high risk of offending
pittsburgh youth study
research project indicating that most serious juveniles reduce offending over time with sufficient monitoring and treatment
pathways to delinquency
a comprehensive research project designed to gain a better understanding of girls’ delinquency and recommend effective prevention programs directed specifically at girls
girls study group (GSG)
longitudinal study focusing on peer associations and parental practices and their effects on delinquency in girls
pittsburgh girls study
a term introduced by terrie moffitt to represent offenders who demonstrate a lifelong pattern of antisocial behavior and who are resistant to treatment or rehabilitation
life-course-persistent (LCP) offenders
an individual who usually demonstrates delinquent or antisocial behavior only during his or her teen years and then stops offending during adulthood
adolescence-limited (AL) offender
theory of adolescent brain development that focuses on differences between cognitive and emotional maturity in most adolescents
dual systems theory
collection of traits in juveniles believed to be precursors of adult psychopathy (also a key characteristic of adult psychopaths)
callous-unemotional (CU) traits
an intervention program designed to prevent behavior or disorders before any sign of the behavioral pattern develops (also called universal prevention)
primary prevention
an intervention program designed for individuals who demonstrate early signs or indications of behavioral problems or antisocial behavior (also called selective prevention)
secondary prevention
intervention strategy designed to reduce or eliminate behavioral problems or antisocial behavior that is fully developed in individuals
tertiary prevention
ex. of tertiary prevention
treatment or counseling of convicted offenders
rehabilitative programs applied in an institutional or group home setting
residential treatment
a treatment approach for serious juvenile offenders that focuses on the family while being responsive to the many other contexts surrounding the family, such as the peer group, the neighborhood, and the school
multisystemic therapy (MST)
in children, maladaptive behaviors directed at persons in the environment
externalizing disorders
ex. of externalizing disorders in children
temper tantrums and aggression
before classical conditioning
neutral stimulus -> unconditioned stimulus -> unconditioned response
ex. of operant conditioning
child wants candy at the checkout -> child throws temper tantrum -> parent gives child candy (reward) -> behavior occurs again during the next trip
behavior has been reinforced due to the removal of something negative
negative reinforcement
emotion behind aggression; feelings that instigate the aggression
hostile aggression
examples of hostile aggression
bar fight, gang member shoot out due to anger over territory, domestic violence
aggression that lacks emotion; cool, calculated, and deliberate
instrumental aggression
examples of instrumental aggression
hit man, armed robber with financial intention
this hypothesis states that feeling frustrated always leads to aggression and aggression is always the product of frustration
the 1939 frustration-aggression hypothesis
2 factors that enhance frustration
- the nearness of the goal
- the legitimacy and the expectancy of the interruption
aggression is significantly higher in the presence of a weapon
weapons effect
aggression is significantly higher in the presence of a weapon
weapons effect
one is more apt to attribute an ambiguous event to something hostile if they have a _____
hostile attribution bias
realistic media violence creates a _____
cognitive script
_____ is the strongest causal factor for subsequent violence and aggression in children, adolescents, and adults
media violence
media violence creates _____ to violence
desensitization
less realistic media = _____ violence
less
if aggression is portrayed as bad, one is _____ likely to show violence
less
if aggressive behavior is rewarded, one is _____ likely to show violence
more
____ are more likely to engage in physical aggression
boys
____ are more likely to engage in covert or verbal aggression
girls
violent crimes account for ____% of juvenile arrests
4%
about ____ of all juvenile arrests are for part II offenses like assaults, drug violations, curfew, disorderly conduct, etc.
3/4
____ in ____ juvenile arrests are for murder
1 in 10
___ in ___ juvenile arrests are for robbery and burglary
1 in 4
___ in ___ juvenile arrests are for motor vehicle theft
1 in 5
ratio of violent juvenile offenses (boys to girls)
9:1
ratio of male to female general delinquency
5:1
____% female delinquents report physical, sexual, emotional abuse in the home
92%
~____% of juvenile delinquents are white
80%
african americans result for ____% of the juvenile population, but ___% of arrests for index crimes, and ____ for violent crimes
16%; 30%; 40%
no big difference in _____ in self-report studies, but significant self-report difference in _____
frequency; significant
____% report that they have been victimized at school
9%
___% of all school crimes are ____ and ____% are property
2%; 7%
student perpetrated homicide is the ___ leading cause of death among youth
2nd
___%-___% of all school-aged homicides occur on school grounds
1-2%
juvenile court was more lenient with this act; more rehabilitation
the juvenile court act of 1899
more formalized due process rights extended to juveniles within this act; more closely related to the adult court system
juvenile justice delinquency prevention act (JJDPA) of 1974
is recitivism higher or lower when judicial waivers are used to waive cases from juvenile to adult system?
higher
