EXAM 2 Flashcards
biodiversity
The richness of biological variation
prokaryotic cells
first step in classifying life, bacteria cells where the overall cell is enclosed by membrane but containing no nucleus but still has DNA
eukaryotic cells
everything else besides bacteria, enclosed by cell membrane, has a specific nucleus and more specialized internal structures
how do we organize life?
classifications of pro and eukaryotes, domains, kingdoms
DKPCOFGS
Dear King Philip Came Over For Grape Soda
six kingdoms
bacteria, archaea, plants, fungi, animals, protists
protists
diatoms and protozoans
fungi
mushrooms, mildews, yeasts
release enzymes to break down food
plants
mosses, flowering plants that produce seeds
animals
invertebrates - jellyfish, insects
vertebrates - amphibians
different components of biodiversity
genetic, species and ecosystem diversity
species richness
amount of different species in an area
species evenness
the measure of the comparative abundance in an ecosystem; rank 0 to 1, closer to one is
species
Group of living organisms with characteristics that distinguish it from others and produce fertile offspring, an evolving science
ecological niche
total use of biotic and abiotic resources for a species in its environment
habitat
place or type of ecosystem in which a species lives and obtains hat it needs to survive, a physical place
generalists
borad niches, can live in many places, variety of food, many invasive species
specialists
narrow niches, more prone to extinction
native species
naturally occur in a region where they evolved
nonnative species
species that migrate or are introduced accidentally or deliberately into an ecosystem
invasive species
a species that causes ecological or economic harm to a new environment where it is not native (invasive = nonnative but nonnative does not = invasive)
indicator species
provide early warnings of changes in environmental conditions, “biological smoke alarm”
keystone species
has a large effect on the types and abundance of other species in an ecosystem, usually relative to the size of their population
case study of reintroduction of wolves in Yellowstone National Park (species effected and how)
introduction of wolves in Yellowstone national park due to the increase in population in elk (the elk population was causing the vegetation to decrease), wolf population increased as elk decreased and trees grew in height and population
evolution
The process through which life forms change genetically over time
mutation
changes in the coded genetic information on your DNA
natural selection
individuals with certain genetic traits are more likely to survive and reproduce under a specific set of environmental conditions
who is Charles Darwin? How is he connected to evolution?
credited for natural selection and evolution, evolution occurs by the process of natural selection
what does it mean for a population to develop resistance?
they change (genetically or physically) to fit better in their environment
what is a phylogenetic tree depicting?
shows evolutionary relationships among different species, when species share more branches = they share more characteristics/more closely related
how do new species arise?
speciation - when one species evolves into two or more species
1. geographic isolation - physically separated from one another
2. reproductive isolation - not able to reproduce together anymore, producing viable offspring
artificial selection vs. genetic engineering
artificial - scientists change the genetic characteristics of populations with similar genes
genetic engineering - scientists manipulate genes in a laboratory setting – transfer segments of DNA with a desired trait from one species into another
endemic species
species found in only one area
extinction
an entire species ceases to exist
mass extinctions
collisions with asteroids or volcanos
how have extinction rates changed overtime?
increased due to climate change
three distinct groupings for plant life
grasses, shrub, trees
grasses
photosynthetic tissue because little energy is required for support tissues (stems)
shrub
a plant with multiple woody, persistent stems (no central trunk) and a height under 4m
trees
will invest more resources in stems and other supporting structures, increased height and access to light
terminology for the different types of leaf longevity
deciduous, evergreen, needle-leaf evergreen
name and define biomes
terrestrial (treeless), boreal coniferous/taiga (cold winter, moist soil), chaparral (mediterranean climate), desert (tropical), semi-evergreen (precipitation throughout year)
ecological succession
the gradual change in species composition in a given terrestrial or aquatic system
primary succession
begins in environments that lack organic matter and have not been altered in any way
secondary succession
occurs at a location that was previously occupied by a community and then underwent a disturbance that removed all or part of the existing community
what are the three main processes of succession?
facilitation - pioneer species modifies environment making it suitable
inhibition - competition determines succession
tolerance - shade-tolerant species begin to flourish
What are the different types of marine ecosystems?
freshwater, lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, wetland, inland, ocean, continental shelf, estuaries, seashore, coral reefs
how much of earth is covered by water? how much saltwater?
71%, 96%
coral reefs (what are they, what are they made of, ecosystem services they provide, major threats to them)?
Form clear warm coastal waters in tropical areas
Tiny animal and single-celled algae have mutualistic relationship
Polyps (provide home) secrete calcium carbonate shells for protection
Natural barrier for protecting coastlines
Habitat food or spawning grounds for a fourth to a third of ocean’s organisms
Hold a lot of marine biodiversity (tourism, fishing, $40 billion/year)
threats: soil runoff, climate change, increasing acidity
different types of aquatic species
plankton (phyto-, ultra-, zoo-), nekton, bethos, decomposers
how are aquatic species categorized?
Temperature
Dissolved oxygen content (oxygen in waters)
Salinity (salt dissolved in water)
Availability of food
Access to light and nutrients (oxygen, carbon, nitrogen) for photosynthesis
why are saltwater ecosystems important in terms of ecosystem services and economic services?
Ecosystem
o Supporting seafood/fishing industry
o Production of oxygen and absorption of CO2
o Weather patterns
o Nutrient cycling
Economic
o Recreation wise – boating, cruise ships, tourism
o Trade and transportation
major life zones
neritic and oceanic
four vertical zones in open sea
epipelagic, mesopelagic, bathypelagic, abyssalpelagic
epipelagic zone
1st layer
phytoplankton
lower nutrient levels
DO is high
nutrients fall as well as upwell from below
mesopelagic zone
2nd layer
light
oxygen
temperature decrease
zooplankton and smaller fish
bathypelagic zone
3rd layer
dark
organisms relies on nutrients from above that fall through water column
abyssalpelagic zone
4th layer
dark and cold
high levels of nutrients where decomposition happens
DO low
filter feeders
estuaries (and ecosystem services?)
biomes that occur where a source of freshwater meets ocean
support biodiversity
storm protection and water filtration
coastal wetlands (and ecosystem services?)
covered with water all or parts of the year
help absorb water to prevent flooding
seagrass beds (and ecosystem services?)
occur in shallow coastal water, great biodiversity, host up to 60 species of grasses and support a variety of marine species
nursery habitats – where fish lay eggs and raise their own
subtidal
permanently flooded zones
intertidal
periodically flooded/exposed zones
saline
higher concentration of salt (3-5%) (for reference: oceans are 3.5% in terms of salt)
brackish
lower concentration of salt (0.5-3%)
adaptations to living in the intertidal zone?
Ability to dig into sand to not be carried away by tide
Protective shell (hold onto water)
Ability to attach themselves to surfaces
some human impacts on marine environments?
Pollution
Rising sea levels
Coastal development
Overfishing
Destruction of ocean bottom habitats
Runoff of pollutants
Pollution from ships and tanker ships
Introduction of invasive species
lotic
flowing water
lentic
non-flowing water
zones of a lake
limnetic, littoral, profundal, and benthic
oligotrophic lakes
small amount of plant nutrients
Often deep with steep banks
Low primary productivity – low NPP
Small pop of plankton and fish species
eutrophic lakes
Large supply of nutrients, too many
Typically, shallow and have murky brown or green water
High NPP, lots of plant growth
three different zones of a river
source, transition, and floodplain
source zone
headwater streams are shallow, cold, and clear (not a lot of organic matter) and swiftly moving
lack of nutrients
organic matter comes from leaves, branches and insects
most dissolved oxygen
transition zone
wider, deeper, warm, flow gentler slopes with fewer obstacles
less dissolved oxygen
floodplain zone
streams join into wider, deeper rivers that flow across broad flat valleys
least dissolved oxygen
how are wetlands determined?
the amount of salt and water
what wildlife do we see in wetlands?
ducks, geese, and other mammals like beavers and otters
what ecosystem services do wetlands provde?
Large biodiversity of species
Help with reducing storm damage/coastal erosion (storing excess water from storms)
Filtering toxic pollutants rather than going out to sea
how are humans degrading freshwater systems?
building canals or restricting water flow (fish cannot go upstream), cities and farms add pollutants and excess plant nutrients, inland wetlands have been drained or filled to grow crops, mining, logging, oil and gas extraction
delta
area at the mouth of a river built up by deposited sediment, usually containing sediment, usually containing coastal wetlands and estuaries
why are our deltas sinking?
man-made structures reduce the flow of silt and funnel it through wetlands into the gulf of mexico + rise in sea level = deltas sinking
different types of species interactions
herbivory, predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism
herbivory, predation, and parasitism
(+,-)
mutualism
(+,+), host and parasite both benefit from actions of host
commensalism
one species benefit and the other is unaffected (+,0)
resource partitioning
Over time species evolved to use specific resources or traits that allow them to share similar resources but use them differently (ex. Warbler species using different parts of the same tree)
coevolution
interactions between populations that impact their evolution
predator defenses (and the different types)
the characteristics that evolved in prey to avoid being detected, selected, and captured by predators
chemical, cryptic, and flashing
two types of mimicry are
batesian and mullerian
batesian mimicry
animals evolving to look like they are poisonous to keep away predators but aren’t poisonous
mullerian mimicry
animals that are similar in design to poisonous animals but are actually poisonous
key takeaways from the Humpback and Killer Podcast
humpback protected seals and gray whales from killer whales which is not considered altruism (when one species benefit another at the detriment of the others survival) since they are doing it since it mimics their own calf
potentially grief and revenge as the humpback circles the dead whale thinking of its own again, feeling grief
humpback whales protect other species in case it is their own
population
Number of individuals/organisms of the same species at a specific time and place
different types in population change
exponential and logistic growth
equation for population change
(birth - death) + (immigration - emigration)
different factors of population growth
emigration (-), immigration (+), births (+), mortality (-)
difference between density dependent and density independent factors
density dependent - factors. that affect a population size depending on the population density (competition for food/diseases)
density independent - factors that influence the density of a population without regard for the population’s density (destruction of habitat, pesticides)
survivorship curve
Ecologists use survivorship curves to look at a populations drop-off with time, usually will measure a group or cohort of a population born at the same time
three types of survivorship curve
type one, two, and three
type one survivorship curve
mortality rates low till later in life, high survivorship at young age but as they get older mortality begins
ex. humans and elephants
type two survivorship
constant proportion of individuals die throughout the life cycle (they die young, mid-age, old)
ex. birds
type three survivorship
juvenile mortality high, those that survive, survivorship increases later in life
ex. trees/certain plants, fish
two main groups for distinguishing reproductive patterns and survivorship
r-strategists and k-strategists
r-strategists (how is carry capacity related?)
produce large numbers of offspring at once butt provide few resources for their support as they get older, Environmental instability reduces population size before it approaches carrying capacity
k-strategists (how is carry capacity related?)
produce relatively few young but invest considerable resources into their support,
Population size near carrying capacity due to density dependent factors with more predictable environment
how are aquatic environments impacted by habitat loss and degradation
trawler fishing boats, ocean acidification (effecting phytoplankton), freshwater aquatic zones with excessive withdrawal of river water
examples of aquatic invasive species and how they impact environment
lionfish - produce quickly and can consume 90% of bodyweight, no natural predators
sea lamprey - parasite
zebra mussel - clogs irrigation and ships
asian carp - hurts sport fishing industry
how have human population growth and pollution impacted aquatic systems
plastic pollution, oceans became sewers, 80% of worlds human pop live along near seacoasts, toxic pollutants
biomagnification
concentration of contaminants increasing in animals higher up on the food chain
bioaccumulation
when you have an increased concentration of contaminants in the tissues of a specific animal
how is overfishing affecting aquatic ecosystems?
overfishing causes species to go extinct due to improper amount of time between production and fishing
types of fishing techniques and their impact on aquatic systems
pure-seine, long-lining, drift-net fishing
what are ways in which we can sustain fisheries?
food pellets, underwater camera and correct placement according to tides
aquaculture and environmental impacts
farming of fish, allowing them to repopulate
how can consumption patterns affect fisheries management
cause more unwanted catches as well as not giving the species enough time to recover
threats on sharks, whales, and sea turtles
sharks - media, hunting, vulnerable to extinction due to slow growth and late maturation
whales - hunting
sea turtles - trawler fishing, hunted, plastic pollution, eggs don’t make it to ocean
ecosystem services provided by forests
Habitat
Erosion protection, help store excess water/prevent flooding, provide more ground water
Oxygen
Store carbon
economic services provided by forests
Lumber, pulp, and paper
Camping, hiking
Livestock raising
old-growth/primary growth forests
uncut or regrown forests that have not been disturbed by human activities or natural disasters for 200 years or more
secondary growth forests
stand of trees resulting from secondary ecological succession (usually containing pines, oaks, etc.)
tree plantation and its drawbacks
forest containing 1 or 2 species of trees all around the same age
low biodiversity leading to low wildlife diversity, less ecosystem services provided, faster disease spread, and repeated cutting down and replanting can diminish soil health
three different tree harvesting techniques
strip cutting, clear-cutting, and selective cutting
surface fires and effects
burn undergrowth and leaf litter, sometimes manmade
get rid of flammable material to help prevent more destructive fires, release seeds from secondary succession (some cones), control destructive insects and tree diseases
crown fires and effects
fires take place in the crowns of trees/treetops
more destructive and fast spread, kills wildlife, destroy most vegetation, increase topsoil erosion
how is climate related to forest fires?
the warmer the climate/more climate change, the more destructive forest fires
negative environmental impacts of deforestation
Lots of carbon released into Loss of wildlife (trees and organisms living in that area) and biodiversity
Depletion of nutrients in the soil
Increase soil erosion
More flooding
Loss of overall soil health
Greater water pollution issues (loss of filtration systems and areas to absorb and hold onto water)
Environment due to cutting down trees and then less trees to release carbon in the air around it
Loss of carbon sink
general patterns and trends with forests in the US
we have good amount of forests impacted in the US and that a lot of protected forests are part of the National Forest System
some ways to manage forests more sustainably
Identify and protect highly diverse forest areas
Stop logging in old-growth forests
Stop clear-cutting on steep slopes
Reduce road-building in forests
Leave most standing dead trees and fallen logs for nutrient cycling and potential habitats for some species
Put tree plantations on only deforested areas and degraded land
ways to restore ecosystems
replanting forests
removing invasive species
removing dams for river flow
include the surrounding community as well!
steps of ecological restoration (with an example)
Identify the causes of degradation
Stop the degradation
Reintroduce keystone species to help restore natural ecological processes
Protect the area from further degradation
exponential pop. growth
The number of individuals added to the population is proportional to the size of the population at the start, not sustainable for most populations
logistic pop. growth
Initial growth in population, as the population reaches carrying capacity growth rate slows down
model
inedible species
mimic
edible species that resembles model/inedible species to not be eaten
interspecific competition
between individuals of different species (-,-)
intraspecific competition
individuals within the same species
limnetic zone
main photosynthetic zone, away from the shore, extends to the depth that light can penetrate (lots if phytoplankton and zooplankton)
littoral zone
shallow sunlight waters, growth of rooted plants (high levels of biodiversity (turtles, frogs, and crayfish)
profundal zone
too dark for photosynthesis to occur, oxygen levels too low
benthic zone
decomposers, detritus feeders, bottom feeding fish (catfish)
neritic zone
coastal waters, not an open ocean
warm, nutrient rich, shallow water
lots of photosynthesis occurring
coral reeds and estuaries (where freshwater meets ocean)
oceanic zone
contains four major life zones
ultraplankton and example
base of aquatic food chain, produce half of earth’s oxygen through photosynthesis
bacteria
zooplankton and example
consumers, primarily herbivores
jellyfish
nekton and example
strong swimmers that can go against current
fish, turtle, whale
benthos and example
bottom dweller
oysters, sea stars, lobsters
example of early succession plants
autumn olive, gray dogwood, goldenrod, milkweed
importance of shrub lands
manage for nesting birds and other animals
