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Animal Biology > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Only cell in nervous system capable of conducting nerve impulses. Structural and functional unit of nervous system.

A

Neuron

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2
Q

Provide support for the neurons.

A

Glial Cells

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3
Q

skin and accessory organs (hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands)

A

integumentary system

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4
Q

outer layer of the skin
superficial layer
(avascular = lacks blood vessels)

A

epidermis

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5
Q

inner layer of the skin
highly vascularized
contains sensory structures, lymph vessels, nerves, and glands

A

dermis

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6
Q

tissues that cover body surfaces and cavities

A

epithelial tissue

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7
Q

binds structures together; provides support

A

connective tissue

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8
Q
  • most common cell type
  • produces keratin
  • 5 zones
A

keratinocytes

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9
Q

What are the 5 zones of keratinocytes?

A
  • Stratum Basale
  • Stratum Spinosum
  • Stratum Granulosum
  • Stratum Lucidum
  • Stratum Corneum
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10
Q
  • defensive cells
  • protection from disease causing agents
A

Langerhans cells

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11
Q

function as light touch receptors

A

merkel cells

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12
Q
  • produces melanin
  • Differences in skin color lies in the amount of melanin produced
A

Melanocytes

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13
Q
  • imparts pink color to thin skin
  • located in red blood cells
  • O2 transporting protein in RBCs
  • Bright red when combined with O2
A

hemoglobin

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14
Q
  • yellow orange
  • derived from diet
  • stored in adipose tissue (fat)
  • temporary pigment
A

beta carotene

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15
Q
  • rare chronic blistering skin disease
  • autoimmune disorder
  • desmosomes attaching adjacent skin cells destroyed
  • cells separate
  • blisters form
A

pemphigus vulgaris

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16
Q
  • light receptors
  • highly concentrated on fingertips
  • located in projections of the dermis into the epidermis called dermal papillas
A

Meissner’s corpuscles

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17
Q

detect deep pressure and vibrations

A

Pacinian corpuscles

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18
Q
  • 2.5 million in body
  • function in temperature regulation
    -produce sweat
  • sweat plays role in temperature regulation
  • body heat is absorbed as it evaporates
A

eccrine sweat glands

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19
Q
  • function in humans?
  • no role in temperature regulation
A

apocrine sweat glands

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20
Q
  • produce sebum; oily substance; lubricates skin and hair
  • all regions of body except for palms and soles
  • large on face, neck and upper chest
  • clogged ducts with bacterial invasion = acne
A

sebaceous glands

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21
Q

produce the hair

A

hair follicle

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22
Q

region of hair below the skin

A

hair root

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23
Q

region of the hair above skin
composed of dead keratinized cells

A

hair shaft

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24
Q

smooth muscle attached to hair follicle
causes hair to “stand on end”

A

arrector pili muscle

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25
Q

grow from epithelial tissue at the base of the nail

A

nail root

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26
Q

skin fold that covers the nail root

A

cuticle

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27
Q

white, crescent shaped region of nail near the base

A

lunula

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28
Q
  • not a layer of the skin
  • lies below the dermis
  • connects skin to underlying tissue
  • thick layer of adipose tissue (fat) found here
  • provides insulation and contributes to body contour
A

hypodermis

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29
Q
  • single layer of live keratinocytes
  • lies on the dermis
  • deepest layer of the epidermis
A

Stratum basale

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30
Q
  • thickest layer of living cells
  • prepared slide, the keratinocytes have a prickle-cell appearance (holly leaf shaped)
    • cell shape is a consequence of being dehydrated
A

Stratum Spinosum

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31
Q
  • membrane coating granules are present in the cytoplasm of the cell
    • release contents
      • contents coat the plasma membrane
      • help to guard against water loss
  • mixture of dead and dying cells
    • nutrients cannot cross to reach cells
A

Stratum Granulosum

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32
Q
  • all of the cells are dead
  • only see in thick skins (soles of feet, etc)
A

Stratum Lucidum

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33
Q
  • superficial layer of the epidermis
  • thickest layer of dead cells
  • surface cells slough away
A

Stratum Corneum

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34
Q

about 60,000 miles of these in the human body

A

blood vessels

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35
Q
  • conduct blood away from the heart
  • high pressure vessels
  • composition of wall:
    thin inner epithelium
    thick smooth muscle layer
    outer connective tissue
A

arteries

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36
Q

largest arteries with many elastic fibers in wall
ex. aorta

A

elastic arteries

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37
Q

most arteries; medium sized arteries

A

muscular arteries

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38
Q

small arteries; help regulate blood pressure

A

arterioles

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39
Q
  • smallest blood vessels
  • sites of exchange of materials between the blood and tissues
  • wall is only 1 cell thick
A

capillaries

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40
Q
  • network of capillaries
  • exchange of materials between blood and cells occur
A

capillary bed

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41
Q
  • conduct blood back to the heart
  • low pressure vessels
  • composition of wall:
    thin inner epithelium
    thin smooth muscle layer
    thick connective tissue layer
A

veins

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42
Q

small veins; receive blood from the capillaries

A

venules

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43
Q

At any given time, how much blood volume is contained in the veins?

A

70%

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44
Q

What happens if blood is lost due to hemorrhaging?

A

The nervous system signals the veins to contract and provide more blood to the rest of the body.

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45
Q

extensions of the lining that prevent blood from flowing backwards
present in some veins
close passively as blood attempts to flow backwards and pushes flaps shut

A

valves

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46
Q

superficial, distended, veins. Valves not functional resulting in pooling of blood

A

varicose veins

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47
Q

mammalian heart: 4 chambers
no mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
human: approximately the size of your fist

A

heart

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48
Q

the tissue that separates the right and left sides of the mammalian heart

A

septum

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49
Q

What are the four chambers of the heart?

A

right and left atria
right and left ventricles

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50
Q

upper, thinner walled chambers

A

atria

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51
Q

lower, thick-walled chambers
the myocardium of the left is thicker than that of the right

A

ventricles

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52
Q

cardiac muscle layer of the heart

A

myocardium

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53
Q

prevent blood backflow into atria when ventricles contract

A

atrioventricular valves

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54
Q

between right atrium and right ventricle

A

tricuspid valve

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55
Q

between left atrium and left ventricle

A

bicuspid valves

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56
Q

string-like structure that anchor AV valves in ventricles

A

chordae tendineae

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57
Q

largest veins in body
conduct oxygen-poor blood rom systemic circulation back to the right atrium

A

superior and inferior vena cavae

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58
Q

between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk
prevents backflow of blood when right ventricle relaxes

A

pulmonary semilunar valve

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59
Q

blood is oxygenated

A

lungs

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60
Q

conduct oxygen-rich blood to heart

A

pulmonary veins

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61
Q

between left ventricle and aorta
prevents backflow of blood when left ventricle contracts

A

aortic semilunar valve

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62
Q

largest artery in body
conduct oxygenated blood to systemic circulation (all body regions except the lungs)

A

aorta

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63
Q

blood flow from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to the left atrium

A

pulmonary circuit

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64
Q

blood from the left ventricle to the aorta, through the body, and back to the right atrium

A

systemic circuit

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65
Q

part of systemic circuit
blood vessels that serve the wall of the heart

A

coronary circulation

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66
Q

events occurring during one heart beat

A

cardiac cycle

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67
Q

What is Stage 1 of the cardiac cycle?

A

atria in systole
ventricles in diastole

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68
Q

What is Stage 2 of the cardiac cycle?

A

atria in diastole
ventricles in systole

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69
Q

What is Stage 3 of the cardiac cycle?

A

atria in diastole
ventricle in diastole

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70
Q

relaxation of the heart chambers

A

diastole

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71
Q

contraction of the heart chambers

A

systole

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72
Q

produced by closure of the heart valve
closure generates vibrations
vibrations transmitted to body wall
detected with a stethoscope

A

heart sounds

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73
Q

produced by the closure of the atrioventricular valves
“lub”
loudest sound

A

first heart sounds

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74
Q

produced by the closure of the semilunar valves
“dub”

A

second heart sound

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75
Q
  • regions of specialized cardiac muscle fibers
  • generate impulses that travel through heart and cause heart to contract
A

nodal tissue of the heart

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76
Q

pacemaker of the heart
sets the heartbeat rate
located in right atrium

A

SA node (Sinoatrial Node)

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77
Q

located in right atrium
delays relay of impulses to the ventricles for 1/10th of a second
allows atria to empty

A

AV Node (atrioventricular node)

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78
Q

located in interventricular septum
conduct impulses to ventricles

A

branches of the Atrioventricular node

79
Q

located in wall of ventricles
conduct signal for ventricles to contract

A

Purkinje fibers

80
Q

ballooning of a blood vessel
abdominal artery or cranial arteries most commonly affected
atherosclerosis and hypertension can weaken arterial wall

A

aneurysm

81
Q

build up of plaque in blood vessels
stationary plaque: thrombus
detached plaque: embolus
increases risk of stroke, heart attack, and aneurysm

A

atherosclerosis

82
Q

cerebrovascular accident (CVA)
cranial artery is blocked or bursts
part of brain dies due to lack of oxygen

A

stroke

83
Q

What are the symptoms of stroke?

A

numbness of hands and feet
weakness on one side of body
confusion and difficulty speaking
inability to see in one eye or both eyes
loss of balance

84
Q

medical name for heart attack
part of the heart dies due to lack of oxygen

A

myocardial infarction

85
Q

What does blood transport?

A

oxygen, nutrients, wastes, CO2, and hormones

86
Q

What does the blood defend against?

A

invasion by pathogens

87
Q

How does blood contribute to temperature regulation?

A

picks up heat from active muscles and transports through body

88
Q

blood is a fluid connective tissue

A

blood clotting

89
Q

fluid portion of the blood. Accounts for 55% of bloods total volume

A

plasma

90
Q

transports molecules

A

albumins

91
Q

defense against pathogens
transport of molecules

A

globulins

92
Q

involved in blood clotting

A

fibrinogen

93
Q
  • approximately 5,000,000 per mm of blood
  • transports O2 from lungs to cells
  • form in red bone marrow
    lose nuclei and other organelles before entering circulation
  • life span: about 120 days
  • Appearance: biconcave disks
  • shape provides greater surface area for gas exchange
A

erythrocytes (red blood cells)

94
Q

oxygen transporting protein in erythrocytes
about 280 million in each red blood cell
bind to and transport O2

A

hemoglobin

95
Q
  • hereditary disorder
  • abnormal hemoglobin
  • RBC’s assume a sickle shape
  • fragile cells (rupture passing through capillaries)
  • RBCs live about 90 days
A

sickle cell disease

96
Q
  • approximately 7000 per mm of blood
  • provide protection against disease-causing agents
  • originate in bone marrow
  • use blood plasma to travel to site of pathogen
A

leukocytes

97
Q

leukocytes pass between post capillary values and enter connective tissue

A

diapedesis

98
Q

contain specific granules in cytoplasm whose contents assist in cell function

A

granulocytes

99
Q

no specific granules in cytoplasm

A

agranulocytes

100
Q
  • most common leukocytes
  • nucleus: 2-5 lobes
  • phagocytes: engulf bacteria
  • dead ones and the bacteria they engulf, we refer to as puss
  • numbers go up during acute infection
  • life span: few hours to several days
A

neutrophils (small, salmon-colored specific granules)

101
Q
  • nucleus: bilobed
  • provide protection from parasitic worms
  • reduce inflammation: engulf antigen-antibody complex
    life span: about 2 weeks
A

eosinophils (large, red specific granules)

102
Q
  • bilobed nucleus
  • promote the inflammatory tissues
  • blood flow to damaged tissues
  • inflammatory response
  • specific granules contain:
    • heparin
    • histamines
A

basophils (large, dark blue or purple specific granules)

103
Q

anticoagulent

A

heparin

104
Q

dilates blood vessels

A

histamine

105
Q

What makes up lymphocytes?

A

B-lymphocytes
T-lymphocytes

106
Q
  • secrete antibodies: proteins produced in response to antigen encounter
  • life span: some may live for many years
A

B-lymphocytes (plasma cells)

107
Q
  • target cancer and virus-infected cells
  • life span: some may live for many years
A

T-lymphocytes

108
Q

What are lymphocytes responsible for?

A

specific immunity

109
Q
  • called macrophages after they leave the blood and enter connective tissues
  • phagocytes that engulf pathogens and cellular debris
  • increase in number during chronic infections
  • life span: several months (60 days or so)
A

Monocytes

110
Q

not intact cells but pieces of large bone marrow cells

A

megakaryocytes

111
Q

megakaryocytes break apart and fragments (platelets) enter the blood
about 200 billion enter the blood each day
function in blood clotting: homeostasis

A

platelets (thrombocytes)

112
Q

fibrin and trapped blood cells

A

blood clot

113
Q
  • transfer of blood from one to another
  • don’t want donor blood to be damaged
A

blood transfusion

114
Q

1) blood vessel is punctured
2) platelets congregate and form a plug
3) platelets and damaged tissue cells release prothrombin activator,
4) fibrin threads form and trap red blood cells

A

Blood Clotting

115
Q
  • clumping of RBCs
  • RBCs can no longer transport oxygen
  • occurs when blood types not carefully matched
A

agglutination

116
Q
  • characterized by the presence
  • blood types named by antigens present
    exception: type O, RBCs lack A and B antigens
A

ABO Blood Groups

117
Q

a foreign substance, often a polysaccharides or a protein, that stimulates an immune response

A

antigen

118
Q

y-shaped protein secreted by plasma cells. produced in response to antigen detection in body. binds to that antigen

A

antibody

119
Q
  • type A antigen
  • anti - B antibody
    Blood Transfusion (can receive in emergency situation): A and O
A

ABO Blood Type: A

120
Q
  • type B antigen
  • anti-A antibody
    Blood Transfusion (can receive in emergency situation): B and O
A

B

121
Q
  • type A antigen and type B antigen
  • no antibody circulating in plasma
  • universal receiver
  • Blood Transfusion (in an emergency situation): AB
A

ABO Blood Type: AB

122
Q
  • universal donor
  • no antigens
  • antibody A and B
  • Blood Transfusion (in an emergency situation): O
A

ABO Blood Type: O

123
Q

another blood type antigen
protein found on surface of RBCs

A

Rh factor

124
Q

if Rh is present

A

positive

125
Q

if Rh is not present

A

negative

126
Q

intake of food

A

ingestion

127
Q

breakdown of food into sizes small enough to allow absorption by the cells lining the GI tract

A

digestion

128
Q

chewing, stomach contraction

A

mechanical digestion

129
Q

require enzymes
reduces food to size small
enough to be absorbed

A

chemical digestion

130
Q

uptake of digested food by cells lining the GI tract

A

absorption

131
Q

transport of food from one digestive organ to the next to allow food to be properly digested, absorbed, or eliminated

A

movement

132
Q

removal of undigested and unabsorbed food

A

elimination

133
Q
  • inner layer that borders lumen (cavity)
  • blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics, glands
  • lining epithelial cells
  • absorb nutrients
  • secrete digestive
  • enzymes.mucous
A

mucosa

134
Q

-connective tissue layer
- contains blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics, glands

A

submucous

135
Q
  • extensive muscle layer: usually two layers of smooth muscle but exceptions occur.
  • contraction moves food through organs of digestion
A

muscularis

136
Q
  • outer layer of wall
  • if organ lies outside of abdominal cavity, the outer layer is adventitia: thick layer of connective tissue
  • if organ lies within abdominal cavity, the outer layer is a serosa: thin layer of connective tissue covered by mesothelium
A

serosa or advententitia

137
Q

simple squamous epithelial cells

A

mesothelium

138
Q
  • site of food intake
  • separated by nasal cavity by the palate
    hard palate: reinforced by bone. immovable
    soft palate: no bone. moveable
A

oral cavity

139
Q

shape of tooth determines its function

A

teeth

140
Q

bite off food (8)

A

incisors

141
Q

tear and shred food (4)

A

canines

142
Q

crush and grind food (8) and (4)

A

premolars and molars

143
Q

3rd molar on both sides of upper/lower jaw

A

wisdom teeth

144
Q

aids in swallowing

A

moisten/lubricating

145
Q

facilitate taste

A

dissolves food particles

146
Q

kill ingested bacteria

A

antibacterial agents

147
Q

enzyme that begins chemical digestion of carbohydrates

A

salivary amylase

148
Q
  • parotid glands
  • submandibular glands
  • sublingual glands
A

major salivary glands

149
Q
  • inflammation of salivary glands caused by a virus
    -parotid gland most commonly affected
  • rare complications: sterility (men), encephalitis, loss of hearing
A

mumps

150
Q

scrapes food from surfaces of oral cavity and helps form a bolus

A

tongue

151
Q

semisolid mass of chewed food mixed with saliva

A

bolus

152
Q
  • projections from tongue surface
  • many equipped with taste buds
A

lingual papillae

153
Q

sensory receptors

A

taste buds

154
Q
  • region commonly referred to as the “throat”
  • conducts bolus to esophagus
  • no digestion or absorption of food occurs here
A

pharnyx

155
Q

aggregates of lymphoid tissue
- contains white blood cells providing protection from pathogens in food/air

A

tonsils

156
Q
  • muscular tube that conducts bolus to stomach
  • no digestion
  • no absorption
A

esophagus

157
Q

wave-like, rhythmic muscular contractions that propel food forward through digestive organs

A

peristalsis

158
Q

What prevents food from entering respiratory passageways when you swallow?

A

The bolus moves from the oral cavity to the pharynx and then to the esophagus.
The esophagus is located from the larynx (conducts air in respiratory system)
the opening to the larynx is the glottis
overhanging the glottis is a flap-like structure called the epiglottis
when you swallow:
larynx moves up and epiglottis covers opening into larynx (glottis)
soft pallet moves back to close off nasal cavity
bolus moves into esophagus

159
Q
  • most dilated region of GI tract
  • smooth muscle oriented in 3 directions
  • contracts and mixes food with digestive enzymes
  • chemical digestion of proteins begins
  • very little absorption occurs in stomach
  • bolus converted to chyme
A

stomach

160
Q

partially digested, liquified, acidic food

A

chyme

161
Q

lined by mucous cells

A

mucosa of stomach

162
Q

temporary folds in the stomach lining

A

rugae

163
Q

indentation in lining. lined by mucus cells.

A

gastric pits

164
Q

open into pits

A

gastric glands

165
Q
  • secrete pepsinogen, the precursor to the protein digesting enzyme, pepsin.
  • pepsinogen will interact with hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the cavity of the stomach and then converted to pepsin
A

chief cells

166
Q
  • secrete HCl and intrinsic factor
  • HCl necessary for the conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin and kills bacteria in ingested food
A

parietal cells

167
Q

replace cells of the gastric glands

A

regenerative cells

168
Q

secretions of digestive glands

A

gastric juice

169
Q
  • also called gastroesophageal reflux disease - GERD
  • backup of gastric into esophagus
  • can cause pain and damage to lining of esophagus
A

heartburn

170
Q

opening in diaphragm where esophagus passes through to enter abdominal cavity and connect with stomach

A

hiatus

171
Q

protrusion of an organ somewhere it is not supposed to be

A

hernia

172
Q

protrusion of region of stomach through the diaphragm

A

hiatal hernia

173
Q

stomach and joining section of esophagus slid-up through hiatus
puts you at risk for GERD

A

sliding hiatal hernia

174
Q
  • esophagus and stomach remain in place
  • part of stomach squeezes through hiatus and lies alongside the esophagus
  • more cause for concern
  • blood supplies to protruding stomach region may be cut off
A

paraesophageal hernia

175
Q

open sores in the stomach or small intestine

A

peptic ulcers

176
Q

bacterium responsible for development of most ulcers

A

helicobacter pylori

177
Q
  • 90% of digested food is absorbed here by enterocytes of the lining
  • chemical digestion of proteins and carbohydrates: completed
  • chemical suggestion of lipids: begins and completed
A

small intestine

178
Q

initial segment of the small intestine. receives chyme from stomach. digestion of food completed here

A

duodenum

179
Q

primary site of nutrient absorption

A

jejunum

180
Q

absorption of food is completed here. contents delivered to cecum of large intestine

A

ileum

181
Q

increases the surface area for absorption of nutrients 400-600 times
up the capacity for nutrient absorption

A

mucosal modifications increasing the surface area of the small intestine

182
Q

large circular folds in the mucosa and submucosa of intestinal wall

A

plicae circulares

183
Q

finger-like projections of mucosa

A

villi

184
Q

highly folded regions of the free surface of the plasma membrane of enterocytes

A

microvilli

185
Q

lymphatic capillaries in villi
absorbs triglycerides

A

lacteals

186
Q

When carbohydrates are ingested what is absorbed?

A

monosaccharides

187
Q

When lipids are ingested what is absorbed?

A

glycerol and fatty acids

188
Q

When proteins are ingest what is absorbed?

A

amino acids

189
Q

these glands add secretions to the small intestine to promote digestion. food does not enter these glands

A

accessory digestive glands

190
Q
  • produces bile emulsifies and stores it
  • releases bile into small intestine
A

gall bladder

191
Q
  • functions as an accessory digestive gland (exocrine regions) and endocrine glands. the digestive function only is covered in this chapter
  • adds digestive enzymes and bicarbonate (buffer) to small intestine
  • bicarbonate prevents the destruction of the digestive system in small intestine
A

pancreas

192
Q
  • about 5 feet long and 25 inches wide
    Function: water absorption and vitamin by non-pathogenic bacteria residing there
A

large intestine

193
Q

connected to ileum of small intestine

A

cecum

194
Q

blind-ended pouch hanging off the cecum

A

appendix

Animal Biology (2 decks)

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