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Intro to Psych > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is learning?

A

Acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors through experience

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2
Q

What is associative learning?

A

Learning that certain events occur together

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3
Q

What is classical conditioning? Give an example in everyday life.

A

It creates association between stimuli and their environment. An example would be after food poisoning; you might associate the food with being sick and be more likely to avoid it. Also the case of Little Albert or placebo effect.

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4
Q

What is a neutral stimulus?

A

Evokes no response before conditioning

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5
Q

What is an unconditioned vs conditioned stimulus?

A

Unconditioned stimulus: naturally triggers a response (ex: food)

Conditioned stimulus:
previously neutral stimulus that triggers a CR after association with a US. (ex: bell)

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6
Q

What is an unconditioned vs conditioned response?

A

Unconditioned response:
naturally occurring response to a US

Conditioned response:
learned response to previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus

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7
Q

What are the 2 stages of classical conditioning?

A

Acquisition: one links a NS with a US

Expression: where CS leads to CR

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8
Q

What is extinction (in relation to classical conditioning)?

A

Weakening of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus

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9
Q

What is spontaneous recovery (in relation to classical conditioning)?

A

Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

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10
Q

What is generalization and discrimination within the concept of classical conditioning?

A

Generalization:
The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus after conditioning

Discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli

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11
Q

What is operant conditioning? Give an example in everyday life.

A

An association between an action and a consequence. An example would doing your homework because you know you’ll be reward (positive reinforcement).

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12
Q

What is shaping?

A

Guiding behaviour closer to its desired goal through reinforcement

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13
Q

What is positive vs negative reinforcement?

A

Positive reinforcement: adds a desirable stimulus

Negative reinforcement: removes an aversive stimulus

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14
Q

What is positive vs negative punishment?

A

Positive punishment: administer an aversive stimulus

Negative punishment:
remove a rewarding stimulus

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15
Q

What are reinforcement schedules?

A

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

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16
Q

What is the difference between continuous and partial reinforcement?

A

Continuous: learning occurs rapidly, can cause rapid extinction

Partial: results in slower acquisition and greater resistance to extinction

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17
Q

Explain the four schedules of reinforcement.

A

Fixed Ratio: reinforcement after fixed number of responses / behaviour

Variable Ratio: reinforcement after a random number of behaviours (ex:slot machines)

Fixed interval: reinforcement for behaviour after a fixed time

Variable interval: reinforcement for behaviour after a random amount of time

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18
Q

What is observational learning?

A

Learning by modeling, that is observing and imitating a specific behaviour. For example, if you see your sibling get punished for something, you will doing that.

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19
Q

What is encoding in memory? Give an example in everyday life.

A

The initial recording of information

ex: reading a book

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20
Q

What is storage in memory? Give an example in everyday life.

A

Information saved for future use

ex: putting the book’s plot into your memory

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21
Q

What is retrieval in memory? Give an example in everyday life.

A

Recovery of stored information

ex: remembering the plot of the book

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22
Q

What is the three stage model of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin?

A

Sensory memory: about 0.5 to 3 seconds

Short term / working memory: after encoding from sensory. about 3 to 15 seconds without rehearsal

Long term memory: encoded from short term. duration is permanent. information can be retrieved from here.

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23
Q

What is sensory memory? Give an example.

A

Records immediate an very brief information.
Iconic: picture-image memory of scene
Echoic: sensory memory of sounds

Ex: passing a field with horses. and seeing a brief image in your head.

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24
Q

What is working memory and why did it replace the term short-term memory?

A

Working memory is a newer understanding of short term memory not just as a temporary holding place, but as a conscious and active processing of incoming sensory information that links with long term memory.

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25
Q

What is working memory and why did it replace the term short-term memory?

A

Working memory is a newer understanding of short term memory not just as a temporary holding place, but as a conscious and active processing of incoming sensory information that links this to old information retrieved from long term memory.

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26
Q

What is working memory and why did it replace the term short-term memory?

A

A newer understanding of short term memory not just as a temporary holding place, but as 1) a conscious and active processing of incoming sensory information 2) that links this to old information retrieved from long term memory.

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27
Q

What are working memory strategies such as chunking and mnemonics? Give an example of each.

A

Mnemonics: techniques used to improve memory – song, rhyme, phrase

Ex: SOH CAH TOA

Chunking: grouping information into units

EX: dividing phone number into three parts

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28
Q

What is the role of rehearsal in memory and the transfer from one type of memory to the other?

A

Rehearsal: repetition of information in short term memory

1- allows info to maintained in short term memory

2- can transfer it to long-term

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29
Q

What is implicit vs explicit memory? Give an example for each.

A

Implicit: information that is retained automatically

ex: riding a bike, typing on a keyboard

Explicit: information that is formed through effortful processing

ex: remembering information you’ve studied for a test

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30
Q

What is episodic memory and give an example in everyday life.

A

Explicit
memory of personally
experienced events

Ex: memories of your first day of school

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31
Q

What is semantic memory and give an example in everyday life.

A

Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

32
Q

What is the influence of emotion on memory and how can this be explained. What brain region is involved?

A

Emotional events are better remembered due to rehearsal. The amygdala also plays a role, and also hormones. The hippocampus and amygdala are involved for explicit memories.

33
Q

What is long-term potentiation?

A

Long term potentiation: a process involving persistent strengthening / stimulation of synapses that leads to a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons

34
Q

What is consolidation in terms of memory?

A

The fixation and stabilization of memories in long-term memory, due to the actions of long-term potentiation

35
Q

What have we learned from the case of HM? Explain what his impairments were and how this applied to the different memory systems

A

HM’s hippocampus was removed. He could no longer store new semantic and episodic memories. (anterograde amnesia)

He also had poor episodic memory from before (partial retrograde amnesia)

He could form some new implicit memories. He had some capacity for working memory (20 seconds)

What did we learn?:
1- hippocampus is not site of permanent storage in brain

2- hippocampus is not necessary to form implicit memories

3- the brain has multiple memory systems

36
Q

What is short term memory?

A

idk.

37
Q

What is long term memory?

A

idk.

38
Q

What is retrograde and anterograde amnesia?

A

Retrograde: memory is lost for occurrences prior to an event

Anterograde: memory is lost for events that follow an injury

39
Q

Within the concept of memory retention, what is recall vs recognition and which one is better to use when studying for an upcoming test?

A

Recall: memory demonstrated by retrieving information learned earlier
(ex: fill in the blank)

Recognition: memory demonstrated by identifying items previously learned
(ex: multiple choice)

ANS: recall is better because it forces you to retrieve information learned, instead of identifying

40
Q

What are retrieval cues and how do they help with retrieving memories?

A

Stimuli / Anchors that help people retrieve memories

41
Q

What are semantic network?

A

Mental representations of clusters of interconnected information.

42
Q

How does subconscious priming contribute to memory retrieval?

A

Activation –often unconsciously- of particular associations in memory

Priming contributes to the context of what you remember.

ex: seeing a rabbit, then asked to spell hair/hare.

43
Q

How does the serial positioning effect contribute to memory recall (what is the recency and primacy effect and give an example).

A

Serial position effect: tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Recency effect: last items recalled quickly because they exist in working memory

Primacy effect: first items better recalled because of more chance of rehearsal

Ex: someone gives you a shopping list. you’ll remember better the last and first items.

44
Q

Why do we forget and name 3 reasons why we forget (include encoding failure, storage decay and retrieval failure).

A

Not forgetting may cause problems thinking abstractly. It may also affect your quality of life as you will remember every traumatic event as if it just happened.

1- encoding failure: encoding gets slower with age / limited attention span

2- storage decay: fading of memory trace

3- retrieval failure: interference / motivated forgetting

45
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

Forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

ex: moving house, you might still write down your old address on forms

46
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

Backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

ex: musician learns new song, starts forgetting the old one

47
Q

How do memory construction errors contribute to the formation of false memories, specifically in the case of eyewitness trials?

A

How a question is phrased can affect the way they recall information. If a lawyer asks “How hard did the car bump him?” they’d answer less than “How hard did the car smash into him?”

48
Q

What is the misinformation effect?

A

Occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information. False memories can be implanted just by hearing a vivid retelling of an event.

49
Q

What is the imagination effect?

A

Occurs when repeatedly imagining fake actions and events creates false memories

50
Q

What is source amnesia?

A

Retaining the memory of an event without its sources. Helps explain deja vu.

51
Q

What is sensation and perception and give an example of each in everyday life.

A

Sensation: input about the physical world obtained by our sensory receptors

ex: seeing a bear

Perception: process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information; transforming it into meaningful objects and events.

ex: understanding the bear is dangerous

52
Q

What is bottom-up and top-down processing and give an example of each.

A

Bottom-up processing: analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

ex: you see the letter s, eyes transmit to brain, brain puts information together

Top-down processing: information guided by higher-level mental processes, drawing on expectation

ex: being able to make something (word, phrase, object) out by context

53
Q

How do bottom-up and top-down processing contribute to perception and to the Gestalt theory?

A

Bottom up: we see certain parts as a whole

Top-down: we extrapolate context to be able to see the whole picture

54
Q

What is transduction?

A

Converting one form of energy into another form that your brain can use

ex: sound waves -> neural messages

55
Q

What is absolute threshold in the context of sensation? What is the difference threshold and just noticeable difference (JND).

A

Absolute: Minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time – in the absence of environmental noise

Difference threshold: The smallest level of added or reduced stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred.

56
Q

What is Weber’s law?

A

a JND is a constant proportion to the intensity of an initial stimulus (rather than an constant amount)

57
Q

What are subliminal sensations and perceptions?

A

Stimuli that are so weak that people do not consciously notice them

58
Q

What is sensory adaption and give an example.

A

Reduced sensitivity in response to constant stimulation

Ex: eyes adjusting to darkness

59
Q

How do we sense visual information?

A

1- light hits the lens in the eye after passing through the pupil

2- lens focuses the light rays into an image on the retina

3- retina converts electromagnetic energy of light to electrical impulses

4- optic nerve transmits from eye to brain

60
Q

What is the Gestalt theory and explain the four gestalt laws of organization?

A

Gestalt theory: emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts

1- Closure: groupings made in terms of enclosed figures. we ignore any breaks and concentrate on overall form

2- Proximity: elements that are closer together are grouped together

3- Simplicity: when we observe a pattern, we perceive it in the most basic manner

4- elements similar in appearance are grouped together

61
Q

How does figure-ground information help with perception?

A

Organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings

62
Q

How do perceptual constancies help us construct meaningful perceptions. Explain and give an example of size, shape, colour and brightness constancy.

A

Perceptual constancy: perceiving the environment as remaining the same even with changes in sensory input

1- shape constancy: form of familiar object is constant, even with changing images

ex: door opening. we still realizes it’s the same size.

2- size constancy: objects have constant size, even when distance varies

ex: if the door is further away, you’ll realize it hasn’t changed size

3- colour constancy: the tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same colour under different conditions of illumination

ex: red apple will look red no matter the brightness

4- brightness constancy: the tendency to perceive a familiar object as having the same brightness under different conditions of illumination

ex: even if a piece of paper is put in darkness, we will know the brightness of the paper hasn’t changed

63
Q

How do perceptual constancies explain the Moon illusion and the blue/black or golden/white dress perception?

A

Moon illusion: when moon appears at horizon, it appears larger than in sky

explanation: size constancy. we see it not by itself, but surrounding objects we know the size of (i.e trees). this makes it look bigger

The Dress: see the colours differently

explanation: colour constancy. ambiguous lighting effects. is it coming from back or front?

64
Q

How do we perceive depth? Explain how monocular and binocular cues explain depth perception.

A

Ability to see objects in three dimensions, although images that strike the retina are two-dimensional

monocular: Cue available to each eye separately (height, size, motion, light and shadow)
binocular: The ability of the brain to integrate the two images received from the eyes into one composite view. depends on use of two eyes. how 3d movies work.

65
Q

Give an example of different monocular cues “relative height, relative size, linear perspective, texture gradient and relative motion.

A

relative height: When objects are lower in the visual field they are perceived as closer

ex: people who pretend to push up leaning tower

relative size: measure how far away something is

ex: plane in sky, you know plane is still the same size

linear perspective: when the angles of two adjacent objects and the distance between them look smaller and smaller

ex: railroad, object smaller in the lines is interpreted as further away

texture gradient: less texture = further away

ex: painting with flowers, even though details disappear, you know they are just far flowers

relative motion: idea that objects closer to you appear to move faster than objects farther away

ex: trains seem to move slower than cars

66
Q

What is the Muller-lyer illusion and how is this explained?

A

Two lines are put together, one with inward facing arrows and one with outward. Outward line look bigger, however they are same length.

Explanation: size constancy, we imagine one line as closer to us.

67
Q

Explain the illusion created in the Ames room using monocular cues.

A

Room where one person looks tiny and the other big.

Explanation: the wall is slanted. however, due to size constancy, we assume the wall is straight and therefore get confused by the effect.

68
Q

How does the drive-reduction theory explain motivated behaviour. Give an example.

A

The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state that motivates an individual to satisfy the need. satisfies primary needs

1- psychological need
2- need is not met = creates drive
3- drive push individual to reduce need

ex: need = food / drive = hunger / drive-reducing behavior = eating

69
Q

What is homeostasis? Give an example.

A

Tendency to maintain a balanced internal state

ex: keeping a relative blood pressure, keeping a healthy amount of water in body

70
Q

How does the arousal theory explain motivation? Give an example.

A

Humans and (other) animals seek for optimal levels of arousal, stimulation and activity.

It is attempted to be kept at a balanced state. It can be mental or physical) satisfies secondary needs

ex: test taking. too much arousal (mental stimulation) can lead to stress, too little to failure.

71
Q

How does Maslow’s theory on hierarchy of needs explain motivated behaviour? Give an example.

A

interaction of biological, psychological, and social needs. human motives are like a pyramid.

order: physiological - safety - love - esteem - self actualization
ex: find a creepy diner in unfamiliar city. however, you stop to eat because your physiological needs (hunger) beat safety.
ex2: ratatouille

72
Q

Can homeostasis or the drive reduction theory fully explain feeding behaviour?

A

NO. how to explain obesity? settling point / homeostasis remains the same. results from external conditions: food tastes, food availability, norms.

73
Q

How is the biopsychosocial approach in psychology important in explaining the motivation to eat?

A

Biology and cultural influence explains taste preferences. Might also be inclined to eat if others are (social aspects).

74
Q

Explain how incentive approaches explain eating behaviour.

A

Theories suggesting that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals, or incentives.

Despite not being hungry, we might still eat a mouthwatering dessert.

75
Q

What is intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation and give an example of each.

A

extrinsic: Motivation based on obvious external rewards or threats of punishment.
(Operant conditioning)

ex: giving kid money after he completes task, or beating him after he fails
intrinsic: Motivation resulting from personal enjoyment of a task or activity.
ex: kid enjoying task on his own and being motivated

76
Q

What are rods? What are cones?

A

Rods: black white grey
Cones: colours + detail

Intro to Psych (2 decks)

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