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Intro to Psych > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is psychology?

A

The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes

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2
Q

Explain the difference between an observation and an inference.

A

Observation: what you see
Inference: what you infer from what you see

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3
Q

Where do psychologists work?

A

In business/non-profit, in government, in health service, in schools, or in independent practice. Jobs include scientists, teachers, therapist, and more.

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4
Q

What do psychologists do?

A

Psychologists analyze the cognitive, biological, and social bases of how humans think, feel, and behave.

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5
Q

What is empirical evidence?

A

Information gained from objective observations and measurements (research)

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6
Q

What is the difference between basic and applied research?

A

Basic research:

  • seeks new knowledge
  • explores new topics of understanding
  • ex: nature of memory, brain function, causes of mental disorders

Applied research:

  • applying research to life
  • solving practical problems
  • increasing quality of life
  • ex: methods to improve memory, therapies to treat mental disorders
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7
Q

What is a variable?

A

Variables are parts or aspects of reality that appear to change or vary

Ex: gender, age, temperature, social class, number of years of education

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8
Q

What are the four basic goals of psychology?

A

1- Description:
-make notes about behaviours or situations observed

2- Explanation

  • requires understanding of conditions
  • understand causes of behaviour and mental processes

3- Prediction

  • researchers can specify conditions under which a behaviour or event is likely to occur
  • predict likelihood of occurrence

4- Influence

  • apply a principle to prevent unwanted occurrences
  • bring about desired outcomes
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9
Q

What are the five major perspectives of psychology?

A

1- Neuroscience/Biopsychological: Examines how our bodies influence behaviour
2- Psychodynamic: believes behaviour is motivated by inner, unconscious forces over which a person has little control
3- Behavioural: focuses on observable behaviour
4- Cognitive: Examines how people, think, understand and know the world – will influence behaviour
5- Humanistic: contends that people can control their behaviour and that they naturally try to reach their full potential

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10
Q

What are the main branches of psychology?

A

Experimental psychology: studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world

Developmental psychology: studies how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death

Personality psychology: focuses on the consistency of people’s behaviour over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another

Health psychology: explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease

Clinical psychology: deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders

Counselling psychology: focuses on educational, social, and career adjustment problems

Social psychology: study of how people’s thoughts are affected by others

Cross-cultural psychology: investigates similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures

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11
Q

What are the newer members of the psychology family tree?

A

Evolutionary psychology: examines how behaviour is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

Behavioural genetics: seeks to understand how we might inherit certain behaviours and how the environment influences whether we actually display such traits

Clinical neuropsychology: focuses on origin of psychological disorders in biological factors

Indigenous psychology: seeks the decolonization of psychological theory and integration of indigenous knowledge into psychological perspectives and approaches

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12
Q

What is the difference between a sample and a population?

A

Population: the entire group that you want to draw conclusions from.

Sample: specific group that you will collect samples from. it is a subset of the population, and may not fully represent the entirety of it.

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13
Q

What are the steps of the Scientific Method?

A

Step 1: Conduct a literature review: read what has been published in scientific journals on the researcher’s subject of interest

Step 2: Make an operationally defined hypothesis: Make a hypothesis that is operationally defined – that is stated very precisely and in measurable terms

Step 3: Research design: choose which research type suits the hypothesis best and conduct it

Step 4: Statistical analysis: review the data and decide whether to reject or retain the hypothesis

Step 5: Peer-reviewed scientific journal: write up the study and its results and submit it to be evaluated and possibly accepted for publication

Step 6: build a theory to explain the results, which may lead to more hypotheses and new methods of inquiry

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14
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

a precise, testable statement of what the researcher(s) predict will be the outcome of the study

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15
Q

What is a theory?

A

a principle or idea that explains or solves a problem

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16
Q

What is an operational definition?

A

States the exact procedures used to represent or measure a concept

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17
Q

What is Correlational Research?

A

Researcher measures (without directly manipulating) two or more variables to find relationships between them

  • correlation coefficient: -1 to 1
  • no correlation: 0
  • positive correlation: 1 (direct relationship)
  • negative correlation: -1 (inverse relationship)
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18
Q

Why can we not define correlational research in terms of cause and effect? (4reasons)

A

1- correlation does not imply causation
2- we don’t know whether x causes y, or vice-versa
3- we also don’t know if they are caused by a third variable
4- correlation only tells us that there is a link between two variables

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19
Q

What are the 3 types of descriptive research?

A

1- Naturalistic observation (or laboratory)
2- Survey
3- Case study

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20
Q

What is naturalistic observation and what are its limitations?

A

Observe behaviour in natural situation

pros:
- study behaviour in normal settings

cons:
- must wait for events to occur
- the observer might be biased to only see what supports their hypothesis
- cannot control variables
- cannot see cause and effect
- participants may behave differently if they know they are being observed
- hard to see everything happening at the same time

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21
Q

What is a survey and what are its limitations?

A

Questionnaires and interviews are used to gather information about specific aspects of behaviour, asked through very carefully worded questions. Representative sample is used.

pros:

  • gathers anonymous information about attitudes
  • can use large numbers of people to collect info cheaply and quickly
  • can collect information that cannot be studied in a lab situation

cons:

  • respondents may provide inaccurate information if the survey is biased or worded in a way to lead to a specific answer
  • respondents may not answer honestly even if anonymous
  • cannot see cause and effect
  • may be problematic if sample is not representative of the population
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22
Q

What is laboratory observation and what are its limitations?

A

Just record subject’s behaviour in a laboratory situation

pros:
- more control over conditions
- more precise equipment to measure responses

cons:
- less spontaneity of behaviour as compared to naturalistic observation

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23
Q

What is experimental research?

A

Carefully controlled scientific procedure that manipulates variables to determine cause and effect

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24
Q

What is experimental research? What are potential researcher problems? What are potential participant problems?

A

Carefully controlled scientific procedure that manipulates variables to determine cause and effect. Two groups: experimental and control group.

Researcher problems:
-experimenter bias: researcher influences results in expected direction

Participant problems:

  • participant bias: research participants are influenced by experimental conditions or the researcher
  • placebo effect: participants in control might act like those in experiment, as if they received the treatment
  • sample bias: sample might be unrepresentative of population
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25
Q

What is a confound in an experiment?

A

A preexisting difference between the two groups that may interfere with the experiment (gender, age, stressors)

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26
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

Variable that is measured

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27
Q

What is an independent variable?

A

Variable that is manipulated

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28
Q

What is an extraneous variable?

A

Any variable that you’re not investigating that can potentially affect the outcomes of your research study

29
Q

What is a placebo?

A

an inert treatment or substance that has no known effects. used in control groups

30
Q

What is random assignment?

A

a way of placing participants from your sample into different treatment groups using randomization.

31
Q

What is experimental validity? What is experimental reliability?

A

Reliability: consistency in what is measured. same score after time if same person is tested and retested

Validity:
test measures what it is intended to measure

32
Q

What is the experimenter effect?

A

The tendency on the part of the experimenter/researcher to influence the participants or to interpret the data/findings to arrive at the result they are seeking to obtain

33
Q

What are the ethical guidelines in psychological research?

A
  1. participants must be protected from physical and mental harm
  2. participants have the right to privacy regarding their behaviour
  3. participation in research is completely voluntary
  4. informed consent: participant must understand risks, procedure, that they may withdraw at any time
  5. participants must be debriefed to be given an explanation for the study
  6. if animals are used, researchers must try to minimize pain
  7. before research is carried out, approval must be obtained from the host institution
34
Q

Who is Wilhelm Wundt?

A
  • established the first psychological laboratory.
  • invented structuralism: uncovering mental components of perception, thinking, emotions & mental states through introspection.
35
Q

What is structuralism limited?

A

Introspection is not objective.

36
Q

What is introspection?

A

the examination or observation of one’s own mental and emotional processes.

37
Q

What is functionalism? Who inspired it? Who lead it?

A

How humans and animals use mental processes in adapting to environment. Looked at underlying causes and consequences of behaviour. Inspired by Charles Darwin. Lead by William James.

38
Q

What is behaviourism? What did John B Watson believe?

A

Studied behaviour that was observable and measurable, objective and scientific. John B. Watson did not believe in studying the mind, emotions or feelings. He thought environmental factors influenced behaviour.

39
Q

Who was B.F Skinner? What did he believe?

A

He did research on operant conditioning using rats and pigeons in the Skinner box. Believed that our behaviour is controlled by rewards and punishments. Also argued that free will is an illusion.

40
Q

Who was Freud and what did he believe?

A

Invented the psychodynamic perspective. Focused on understanding inner thoughts. Believed behaviour was greatly influenced by unconscious thoughts and desires. First to understand childhood shapes personality. However, his work is very subjective.

41
Q

Who was Freud and what did he believe?

A

Invented the psychodynamic perspective. Focused on understanding inner thoughts. Believed behaviour was greatly influenced by unconscious thoughts and desires. First to understand childhood shapes personality. Created psychoanalysis. However, his work is very subjective.

42
Q

What is psychoanalysis?

A

Psychotherapy that explores unconscious conflicts and emotional problems

43
Q

What is the difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist?

A

Psychiatrist:

  • has a medical degree
  • specializes in treating mental disorders
  • does psychotherapy and can prescribe drugs

Psychologist:

  • usually has a PhD in psychology but cannot prescribe drugs
  • trained in methods, factual knowledge and theories of psychology

Psychoanalyst:
-medical doctor or PhD but has training in practice of Freudian psychoanalysis

Psychotherapist:
-can have various backgrounds but no degree or experience

44
Q

What are neurons?

A

A nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system

45
Q

What are glial cells?

A

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons by providing myelin and nutrients.

46
Q

What is the difference between a neuron and a nerve?

A

A neuron is an individual cell, whereas, a group of neurons form a nerve

47
Q

Describe the parts of a neuron.

A

Cell body: the cell’s life support center, where the nucleus is

Dendrites: receive messages from other cells

Axon: passes messages away from cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Neural impulse: action potential; electrical signal traveling down the axon

Myelin sheath: covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

Synapse: space between neurons

48
Q

What is the all-or-none law? How does a neuron fire?

A

Neurons are either on or off. At a resting state, the neuron is negatively charged on the inside of the axon. An electric nerve impulse change the cell’s charge from negative to positive.

49
Q

What is the action potential?

A

The method which a message is carried through a neuron. Propagation of the message occurs through the use of chemicals (Na+ and K+)

50
Q

What type of message can neurons fire?

A

Excitatory messages: A chemical message that makes it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon.

Inhibitory messages: A chemical message that prevents or decreases the likelihood of a receiving neuron firing.

51
Q

What is the absolute refractory period? What is the relative refractory period?

A

Absolute: the neuron must wait after an action potential to fire

Relative: more stimulation that normal needed for the neuron to fire

52
Q

What is the function of neurotransmitters?

A

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to the dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiver neuron.

53
Q

How do neurons communicate?

A

1) neurotransmitters produced and stored in axon
2) if an action potential arrives, the axon releases neurotransmitters
3) neurotransmitters travel across synapse to receptor sites on another neurons dendrite
4) upon reaching the receptor, it delivers a message. if enough excitatory messages are delivered, the neuron will fire

54
Q

What is reuptake?

A

Reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by the sending neuron

55
Q

How do SSRI’s work?

A

At the axon terminal, neurotransmitters called serotonin are stored and released. In some people, too much serotonin is reuptaked, meaning taken back from the synapse. SSRI’s block the axon terminals so that the serotonin must pass through. A consequence might be too much serotonin going through.

56
Q

What are reflexes and which types of neurons are involved?

A

A reflex is an automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus.

1- Sensory (afferent) neurons: bring in information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system

2- Motor (efferent) neurons (e for exit): communicate info from the nervous system to muscles and glands

3- Interneurons: connect sensory and motor neurons, carrying messages between the two

57
Q

What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?

A

Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous system: Sensory and motor neurons connecting the CNS to the rest of the body

58
Q

The peripheral nervous system has two parts, what are they? What is their function?

A

The somatic nervous system: controls all voluntary control of movements

The autonomic nervous system: controls all of the involuntary movements of the body (e.g. heart, breathing, and other organs).

59
Q

The autonomic nervous system has two parts, what are they? What is their function?

A

The sympathetic nervous system: prepares the body to deal with stressful situations and evokes the fight/flight response.

The parasympathetic nervous system: acts to calm the body.

60
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

It is a chemical communications network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. It is controlled by the hypothalamus via the pituitary gland.

61
Q

What are hormones and how do they differ from neurotransmitters?

A

Chemical messengers manufactured by the endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream. Effects of endocrine messages last longer than those of neural messages. They are used for growth, reproduction, metabolism, the brain

62
Q

What neuroimaging techniques are there?

A

Electroencephalograph (EEG): Uses electrodes placed on the scalp to record waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface

Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan): depicts where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. can also measure neurotransmitter levels in the brain

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): used to study brain structure. An fMRI is used to study brain function.

63
Q

What is neuroplasticity?

A

The brain’s ability to change by reorganizing after damage or building new pathways based on experience

64
Q

How do nature and nurture work together?

A

We all respond differently to the same environment. For example, in a highly enriched environment, it is possible for someone to perform worse, and for someone to perform better, versus in a less stimulating environment.

Difference in traits between twins is assumed to be the results of different genetics. If identical twins (those who are genetically identical) display different patterns of development, those differences have to be attributed to variations in the environment in which the twins were raised.

65
Q

How do nature and nurture work together?

A 
Nature = genetics
Nurture = environment

We all respond differently to the same environment. For example, in a highly enriched environment, it is possible for someone to perform worse, and for someone to perform better, versus in a less stimulating environment.

Difference in traits between fraternal twins is assumed to be the results of different genetics. If identical twins (those who are genetically identical) display different patterns of development, those differences have to be attributed to variations in the environment in which the twins were raised.

66
Q

What are the three parts of the brain?

A

The hindbrain: “reptilian brain”: basic functions such as eating and sleeping. Includes the medulla, pons, and the cerebellum

The midbrain: a relatively small regions that connects hindbrain and forebrain. the reticular formation

The forebrain: responsible for all our higher cognitive functions. Includes the cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system

67
Q

What are the parts in the cerebral cortex?

A

The frontal lobe: planning, executive functions, thinking
Motor Cortex: movement
Sensory cortex: sensations
Parietal Lobe: perception, making sense of the world, spelling
Temporal Lobe: auditory, memory, understanding, language
Occipital Lobe: vision

68
Q

What are the parts of the brain?

A

It’s divided into three parts: forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain

Thalamus: sensory switchboard, regulates sleep and wake

Hippocampus: memory, long term events
Amygdala: linked to fear response + stress and anxiety
hypothalamus: releasing hormones, endocrine system

Reticular formation: regulates arousal
Medulla: breathing, heart rate
Pons: sight, taste, and respiration, and also face sensations, and cardiovascular functions

Cerebellum: balance, equilibrium, attention, control, and motor movements and your cognitive function

Lobes:
Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal
69
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

Regulates fear drive and emotion. Hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus.

Intro to Psych (2 decks)

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