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BI173—Cell & Organismal Biology > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

resolving power

A

ability of the microscope to show two objects as separate

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2
Q

light micrographs for…

A

viewing living cells

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3
Q

Used to explore structures & functions of cells

A

electron microscope

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4
Q

electron microscope can magnify x______ and distinguish between objects ___ nm apart

A

100,000

0.2

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5
Q

examines cell surfaces

A

scanning electron microscope

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6
Q

examines inside of cells

A

transmission electron microscope

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7
Q

cell theory

A

all living things are made of cells & all cells come from other cells

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8
Q

first described cells

A

Robert Hooke

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9
Q

prokaryotic organisms

A

bacteria & archaea

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10
Q

prokaryotes appeared ____ million yrs ago

A

3.5

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11
Q

contains DNA in prokaryote

A

nucleoid

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12
Q

sticky coating over prokaryote

A

capsule

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13
Q

eukaryotes appeared ___ million yrs ago

A

2.1

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14
Q

3 features common to prokaryotes & eukaryotes

A

plasma membrane

DNA

ribosomes

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15
Q

composition of ribosome

A

protein & rRNA

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16
Q

system of organelles connected to nuclear envelope

A

endomembrane system

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17
Q

components of endomembrane system

A

ER

Golgi

lysosomes

vesicles

vacuoles

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18
Q

function of RER

A

produce membrane proteins & secretory proteins - packages proteins into transport vesicles

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19
Q

function of SER

A

produces lipids, including steroids - metabolizes carbs - helps liver detox circulating drugs

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20
Q

function of Golgi

A

receives, refines, stores, sorts & distributes chemical products - uses transport vesicles to package products

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21
Q

function of lysosomes

A

sac of digestive hydrolytic enzymes - break down proteins, polysaccharides, fats, nucleic acids - involved in food digestion & recycling

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22
Q

function of contractile vacuole

A

pump out water to maintain osmotic pressure - found in protists

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23
Q

function of central vacuole

A

store nutrients, absorb water, may contain pigments or poisons, and help maintain cell shape - found in plants

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24
Q

thick substance inside mitochondria

A

matrix

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25
Q

thick fluid within chloroplasts

A

stroma

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26
Q

drums made of thylakoids

A

grana

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27
Q

hollow discs containing pigments

A

thylakoids

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28
Q

responsible for similarities between mitochondria & chloroplasts

A

endosymbiosis

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29
Q

function of cytoskeleton

A

(1) Provides mechanical support, (2) maintains cell shape & (3) provides movement for the cell & its molecules/organelles

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30
Q

microfilaments

A

thin & solid - aid in muscle movement (actin & myosin)

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31
Q

intermediate filaments

A

structural support, hold organelles in place

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32
Q

microtubules

A

straight & hollow - guide movement of cells, cilia, flagella & chromosomes during division

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33
Q

cell wall composed mainly of…

A

cellulose

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34
Q

function of middle lamella

A

holds neighboring cells together because it is continuous with cell walls

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35
Q

middle lamella includes…

A

pectin

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36
Q

4 components of cell membrane

A
  • Phospholipid bilayer
  • Proteins
  • Cholesterol
  • Carbohydrates
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37
Q

turgid state

A

plants require hypotonic environment

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38
Q

3 steps of cell signalling

A

reception, transduction, response

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39
Q

cell respiration equation

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP + heat

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40
Q

substance loses electrons

A

oxidation

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41
Q

substance gains electrons

A

reduction

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42
Q

electron donor

A

reducing agent

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43
Q

electron acceptor

A

oxidizing agent

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44
Q

during cell respiration, glucose is _______ and O2 is _______

A

oxidized

reduced

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45
Q

STEPS OF GLYCOLYSIS

A
  • Energy investment phase
    • 1 ATP used to produce glucose 6-phosphate
    • Fructose-6 phosphate created
    • 1 ATP used to create 1,6-biphosphate
    • molecule split into G3P or DHAP
  • Energy payoff phase
    • G3P & DHAP converted to 1,3-biphosphoglycerate (2 NADH produced)
    • phosphates taken from each molecule to phosphorylate 2 ADP
    • Water loss phase — 2 more ADP phosphorylated & 2 pyruvates formed
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46
Q

net gain of glycolysis

A

2 ATP

2 NADH

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47
Q

STEPS OF PYRUVATE OXIDATION

A
  • pyruvates converted to acetyl coenzyme A
  • release of CO2
  • produces 2 NADH & 2 H+
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48
Q

overall steps of cell respiration

A
  1. glycolysis
  2. pyruvate oxidation
  3. citric acid cycle
  4. oxidative phosphorylation & chemiosmosis
49
Q

gain of pyruvate oxidation

A

2 acetyl CoA

2 NADH

2 H+

50
Q

there are ___ total steps of citric acid cycle

A

8

51
Q

there are __ cycle of the citric acid cycle per glucose

A

2

52
Q

STEPS OF CITRIC ACID CYCLE

(boiled down)

A
  • acetyl group joins oxaloacetate, forming citrate
  • next 7 steps decompose citrate back to oxaloacetate
53
Q

gain of citric acid cycle (both turns)

A

2 ATP

6 NADH

2 FADH2

54
Q

NADH drops electrons into _______ and FADH2 into _______

A

complex 1

complex 2

55
Q

proteins electrons are transferred through

A

cytochromes

56
Q

each cytochrome has an…

A

iron atom

57
Q

electrons pulled down ETC in cell respiration by…

A

O2

58
Q

energy released from ETC in cell respiration is used…

A

to push H+ from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space

59
Q

once the proton gradient is produced in the mitochondria, they diffuse…

A

through ATP synthase into mitochondrial matrix

60
Q

work produced by H+ gradient

A

proton motive force

61
Q

gains of chemiosmosis

A

26-28 ATP

62
Q

energy flow in cellular respiration

A

glucose → NADH → ETC → proton motive force → ATP

63
Q

__% of energy in a glucose is transferred to ATP; the rest is lost as heat

A

34

64
Q

_____ ATP made per 1 glucose

A

30-32

65
Q

how does anaerobic respiration work?

A

uses another electron acceptor at ETC besides O2

66
Q

how does fermentation work?

A

uses substrate-level phosphorylation

67
Q

fermentation consists of…

A

glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD, which can be reused by glycolysis

68
Q

fermentation produces ___ ATP per glucose

A

2

69
Q

2 common types of fermentation

A

alcohol

lactic acid

70
Q

in alcohol fermentation, pyruvate is converted to..

A

ethanol

71
Q

which fermentation releases CO2, and which does not?

A

alcohol does

lactic acid does not

72
Q

in lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate becomes…

A

NAD & lactate

73
Q

use fermentation or anaerobic respiration - cannot survive in O2

A

obligate anaerobes

74
Q

can use fermentation or aerobic cellular respiration

A

facultative anaerobes

75
Q

producers - survive on inorganic molecules & produce organic ones

A

autotrophs

76
Q

use sunlight to make organic molecules

A

photoautotrophs

77
Q

consumers - use organic material

A

heterotrophs

78
Q

major location of chloroplasts

A

mesophyll cells in leaves

79
Q

each mesophyll contains ____ chloroplasts

A

30-40

80
Q

pores in leaves allowing gas exchange

A

stomata

81
Q

photosynthesis equation

A

6CO2 + 12 H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O

82
Q

2 stages of photosynthesis

A

light reactions

Calvin cycle

83
Q

ATP generated in plants by __________

A

photophosphorylation

84
Q

other terms for light

A

electromagnetic energy or electromagnetic radiation

85
Q

wavelength

A

distance between crests of light waves

86
Q

entire range of radiation (light)

A

electromagnetic spectrum

87
Q

visible light wavelengths

A

380-750nm

88
Q

“particles” of light

A

photons

89
Q

absorb visible light

A

pigments

90
Q

best light for photosynthesis

A

blue-violet and some red

91
Q

key light-capturing pigment

A

chlorophyll-a

92
Q

accessory pigments

A

chlorophyll-b

carotenoids

93
Q

measures pigment’s ability to absorb various wavelengths

A

spectrophotometer

94
Q

graph plotting pigment’s light absorption

A

absorption spectrum

95
Q

action spectrum of photosynthesis first demonstrated by….

how?

A

Theodor W. Engelmann

Exposed different segments of algae to different wavelengths & measured O2 produced via the growth of aerobic bacteria

96
Q

photosystems consist of…

A

reaction center complex surrounded by light-harvesting complexes

97
Q

reaction center complex

A

association of proteins holding a pair of chlorophyll-a molecules & a primary electron acceptor

98
Q

light harvesting complex

A

pigment molecules bound to proteins

99
Q

reaction-center pigment in PSII

A

chlorophyll P680

100
Q

reaction-center pigment in PSI

A

chlorophyll P700

101
Q

2 possible routes for electron flow in light reactions

A

linear

cyclic

102
Q

STEPS FOR LINEAR ELECTRON FLOW IN LIGHT REACTIONS

A
  • photon hits pigment in PSII
  • P680 excited
  • electrons passed to electron acceptor, making P680+
    • H2O is split to replace electrons—H+ and O2 are released into thylakoid space
  • electrons fall down ETC
  • energy drives pumping of protons into thylakoid space across thylakoid membrane
  • protons diffuse through ATP synthase, producing ATP
  • photon hits pigment in PSI
  • P700 excited
  • electrons fall down ETC & are accepted by ferredoxin
  • NADP+ reductase reduces NADP to form NADPH
103
Q

how is cyclic electron flow different from linear?

A

electrons cycle back from ferredoxin to the PSI reaction center via plastocyanin

bypasses PSII entirely

produces ATP, but no NADPH or O2

prevents light-induced damage from O2

104
Q

gains from linear light reactions

A

ATP

NADPH

105
Q

location of Calvin cycle

A

stroma

106
Q

calvin cycle turns…

A

3 times

107
Q

during Calvin cycle, CO2 becomes…

A

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)

108
Q

STEPS FOR CALVIN CYCLE

A
  • carbon fixation
    • input 3 CO2
    • CO2 is fixed to RuBP by rubisco, forming 6 3-phosphoglycerates
    • 6 ATP added, 6 electrons from NADPH added, 6 phosphates lost
  • reduction
    • 6 3-phosphoglycerate molecules are reduced by NADPH & ATP to form 6 G3P molecules
    • 1 G3P molecule exits cycle to form a sugar
  • regeneration
    • remaining 5 G3P molecules (15 carbons) are reused to form RuBP
    • ADP & NADP+ are returned back to light reactions
109
Q

____ G3P required to form glucose

A

2

110
Q

hot, dry conditions favor…

A

photorespiration

111
Q

most plants are ___ plants

___ plants use photorespiration

_____ plants separate photosynthesis temporally

A

C3

C4

CAM

112
Q

how is photorespiration different?

A
  • rubisco adds O2 instead of CO2 in Calvin cycle, producing a 2-carbon compound
  • Consumes O2 & large amounts of energy
  • releases CO2
  • does not produce ATP or sugar
113
Q

why is photorespiration a problem?

A

can drain 50% of carbon fixed by Calvin cycle

114
Q

what is C4 plants’ advantage

A

minimize cost of photorespiration by incorporating CO2 into 4-C molecules instead of 3-C molecules

115
Q

2 types of cells in C4 plants’ leaves

A
  • Bundle-sheath cells - arranged in tightly packed sheaths around veins of a leaf
  • Mesophyll cells - loosely packed between bundle sheath and leaf surface
116
Q

C4 plants’ process for producing sugar

A
  • Production of 4-C molecules catalyzed by PEP carboxylase in mesophyll cells
  • 4-C compounds moved into bundle sheath cells
  • Calvin cycle occurs in bundle sheath cells
  • CO2 is released throughout the day slowly
117
Q

CAM stands for…

A

crassulacean acid metabolism

118
Q

how do CAM plants work?

A
  • separates time between intermediate and entry into Calvin - organic acids are released into Calvin cycle during the day
  • Stomata is open only at night - closed during the day to prevent water loss
  • Organic acids are stored in vacuoles
119
Q

examples of CAM plants

A

succs

pineapples

BI173—Cell & Organismal Biology (3 decks)

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