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Research Methods > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Why are samples necessary?

A

save time & money

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2
Q

Why is sampling on the dependent variable a problem?

A

creates selection bias & can lead to incorrect conclusions

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3
Q

What are the potential problems with random sampling?

A

the sampling frame might not be complete & low response rates

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4
Q

What is a representative sample?

A

a sample looks like the population from which is was selected in all relevant respects

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5
Q

What are the factors affecting the likelihood of getting a representative sample?

A

sample size & population makeup

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6
Q

What are the four types of random sampling?

A
  1. Simple Random Sampling- selecting elements in such a way that each individual has an equal chance of being selected
  2. Systemic Random Sampling- elements are selected from a list where every nth element is selected
  3. Cluster Sampling- elements are selected in two or more stages; the first is random selection of naturally occurring clusters & the second is selection of elements within those clusters
  4. Stratified Random Sampling- sample elements are selected separately from population strata that the researcher identifies in advance
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7
Q

What are the four types of non-probability sampling?

A
  1. Availability/ Convenience Sampling- anyone available is included in the sample
  2. Quota Sampling- choose some characteristics that must be representative
  3. Purposive Sampling- sampling only people with a particular knowledge of a subject
  4. Snowball Sampling- Ask the person you talk with to tell you someone else you could interview
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8
Q

What are some reasons why true experiments may not always be feasible?

A

too long, too costly, unethical, & treatment in past

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9
Q

What are the five threats to internal (casual) validity? Know the definitions and examples of each!

A
  1. Non-comparable Groups- when the experimental group and the control group are not comparable
  2. Endogenous Change- when natural developments or changes in the subjects account for change rather than the experimental treatment
  3. History- events external to the study that influence post-test scores
  4. Contamination- treatment and control groups are aware of the other and this influences the post-test
  5. Treatment Misidentification- when effects are not due to treatment, but some unknown intervening process
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10
Q

What are the two ways we may get non-comparable groups?

A

selection bias (occurs when characteristics of experimental and comparison group subjects differ in any way that influences the outcome) & attrition (when groups become different because subjects in one group are more likely to drop out)

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11
Q

What are the four types of endogenous change?

A
  1. Testing- taking the pretest itself can influence the post-test scores
  2. Maturation- subjects change because of experience, not because of treatment
  3. Regression to the Mean- when a variable is extreme on its first measurement, it will tend to be closer to the average in subsequent measurements
  4. Instrument Decay- when research produces different results later in the research because the measurement tool changes
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12
Q

What are the three threats to external validity (generalizability)?

A
  1. Sample Generalizability- do the results hold outside of this lab?
  2. Cross-Population Generalizability- do the results hold over different populations over different time periods?
  3. Intention of Testing & Treatment- there is only an effect when there is a pretest taken
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13
Q

What are the six potential problems in survey research?

A
  1. Confusing Phrasing
  2. Biased/ Leading Phrasing
  3. Allow for Disagreement
  4. Ask Answerable Questions
  5. Exhaustive & Mutually Exclusive
  6. Allow for Uncertainty
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14
Q

What are the five ways to administer a survey? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?

A
  1. Mailed (pro- cheap; con- low response)
  2. Group Administered (pros- large audience & large response rate; cons- coercion & difficult to get people in these types of settings)
  3. Phone (pro- reach a lot of people; con- cannot do random digit dialing)
  4. In Person (1:1) (pro- survey can be complex; con- very expensive)
  5. Online (pros- easy to record & composite answers, can use complex survey designs, & global reach; cons- internet access required & easy to misrepresent who you are)
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15
Q

What is the difference between a bar chart and a histogram? When should you use each?

A

Bar Chart= bars not connected
Histogram= bars connected

Bar Chart- used when the variable you are describing has discrete categories (typically normal)
Histogram- graphic for continuous variables displayed by adjacent bars

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16
Q

What are the three measures of central tendency?

A
  1. Mean
  2. Median
  3. Mode
17
Q

What are the two measures of variation? Which is better?

A
  1. Range
  2. Variance
  3. Standard Deviation= best
18
Q

What is a Cross-Tabulation Table? What can it tell us? What can it not tell us?

A

Cross-Tabulation Table- data tables that present the results of the entire group of respondents, as well as results from subgroups of survey respondents

can tell us: correlation
cannot tell us: causation

19
Q

Define Population

A

the entire group you wish to learn about

20
Q

Define Sampling Frame

A

a list of all the elements in a population

21
Q

Define Sample

A

subset of the population about which we wish to learn

22
Q

Define Element

A

the individual units of a sample

23
Q

Define Sample Generalizability

A

the element to which a study can inform us about persons, places, or events that were not directly studied

24
Q

Define Sampling Bias

A

something other than random chance determines selection into sample

25
Q

Define Association

A

variation in one variable is empirically related to variation in another variable

26
Q

Define Time Order

A

variation in the presumed cause must occur before variation in the presumed effect

27
Q

Define Spuriousness

A

false/ non-genuine

28
Q

Define Causal Bias

A

systematic error in the strength or sign of an estimate of a relationship of interest

29
Q

Define Random Assignment

A

a procedure by which each experimental subject is placed in a group based solely on chance

30
Q

Define Matching

A

a procedure to equate certain characteristics of individuals in different comparison groups

31
Q

Define Quasi-Experimental Designs

A

a research design in which there is a comparison group that is comparable to the experimental group in important ways but subjects are not randomly assigned

32
Q

Define Push-Polling

A

using a survey to distribute rather than collect information

33
Q

Define Statistical Significance

A

the mathematical likelihood that an association is not due to random chance

34
Q

ESSAY QUESTION

A

casual effect- variation in the dependent variable follows variation in the independent variable, when everything else is held equal

three necessary elements of causal effect:

  1. Association- variations in variable are actually related
  2. Time Order- said cause must happen before said effect
  3. Nonspuriousness- variation between two variables is not caused by variation in third variable

Why is each of the elements as an important aspect of establishing causal effect?
association- if we violated association, we would lack causation and instead have correlation
time order- if we did not have time order, than it would be impossible for the said cause to actually cause the said effect because it came after the effect was in place
nonspuriousness- if there was spuriousness and a third variable was the cause then there may not have actually been a relationship between the first two variables

two additional things to help strengthen an argument for causal validity:

  1. a causal mechanism- a describable process that creates a connection between two variables
  2. context- the larger set of interrelated circumstances in which a particular outcome should be understood

Research Methods (2 decks)

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