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Introduction to Neuroscience > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a neurotransmitter?

A

Chemical released onto target cell

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2
Q

Criteria for neurotransmitters

A
  • Substance exists in presynaptic axon terminals
  • Substance synthesized in presynaptic cells
  • Substance released when action potential reaches axon terminals
  • Receptors for the substance exist on postsynaptic membrane
  • When applied, substance causes changes in postsynaptic cell
  • Blocking substance release prevents changes
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3
Q

If a neurotransmitter does not follow all of the criteria for neurotransmitters, what is it called?

A

Atypical neurotransmitter (violate at least one rule that is a criteria for neurotransmitters)

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4
Q

Name the types of typical neurotransmitters

A

Amino acid neurotransmitters, amine neurotransmitters, peptide neurotransmitters

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5
Q

Amino acid neurotransmitter examples

A

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), Glutamate, Glycine

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6
Q

What do all amino acids have?

A

NH2 and COOH

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7
Q

Amine neurotransmitters

A

Based on modifications of a single amino acid nucleus

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8
Q

Peptide neurotransmitters

A

Based on multiple amino acids/short chains of amino acids

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9
Q

Atypical neurotransmitter type and examples

A

Gas and lipid neurotransmitters such as nitrous oxide

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10
Q

Name some nearly ubiquitous nts

A

Glutamate: fast depolarization/excitation, GABA/glycine: inhibitory/causes hyperpolarization

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11
Q

True or false: we can study brain tissue in a way such that only neurons responsible for making a certain neurotransmitter are present/labled

A

True

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12
Q

How many neurotransmitters does a neuron make?

A

Typically only 1

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13
Q

Why is it easy for diseases like Alzheimer’s and parkinson’s to occur?

A

Pathways are based on a relatively small number of neurons/nerves

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14
Q

Describe the cholinergic pathway

A

Basal forebrain to hippocampus, cortex, and amygdala. . In the peripheral nervous system, acetylcholine is present at the neuromuscular junction and in the central nervous system, ACh has different effects including

  • Reward system (which nicotine activates by activating NACh receptors on the brain’s surface
  • When acetylcholine binds to specific neurons in the VTA it releases dopamine
  • Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors: cognition, so blockers can produce hallucinations; they aid in transduction of cholinergic signals and are GPCR’s
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15
Q

Dopaminergic pathway

A

Two pathways
- Mesolibocortical pathway: VTA to NAcc and cortex, especially important for processing reward, and abnormalities are associated with some symptoms of schizophrenia
- That is why antipsychotics typically target DA receptors
DA is important for learning shaped by positive reinforcement

Mesostriatal pathway- substantia niagra to basal ganglia

  • neurons in niagra release dopamine in striatum and innervate the striatum
  • loss of neurons associated with parkinson’s
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16
Q

Serotonergic

A

Midbrain raphe nuclei to forebrain
Brainstem raphe nuclei to spinal cord
Cell bodies mainly found in nuclei then they spread all over
Serotonin is implicated in sleep, mood, sexual behavior, anxiety which is why drugs like prozac increase amount of 5HT in synaptic cleft to increase receptor activity

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17
Q

Noradrenergic

A

Norepinephrine/noradrenaline
- Alertness, mood, sexual behavior
- Locus coeruleus to forebrain
- Lateral tegmented area to brainstem/spinal cord
Axons from these areas spread through cerebrum including cerebral cortex, limbic system, and thalamic nuclei

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18
Q

Glu

A

Glutamate

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19
Q

Gly

A

Glycine

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20
Q

ACh-

A

Acetylcholine

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21
Q

DA

A

Dopamine

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22
Q

NE

A

norepinephrine

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23
Q

5-HT

A

serotonin

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24
Q

How do we identify and name neurotransmitters?

A

Look at which nt it bonds, whether it is ionotropic or metabotropic, and whether there is specific pharmacology/special drugs that bind/affect it

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25
Q

Drugs can be used to find specific functions of certain molecules

A

True

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26
Q

What is a drug?

A

An exogenous substance w/biological activity that is not food or water, it may have different modes of activity

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27
Q

Agonist

A

Activates response of the receptor

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28
Q

Antagonist

A

Inhibits activity, either by blocking or by preventing bonded neurotransmitter from having an effect

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29
Q

Ligand

A

A substance that binds to a receptor and effects it

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30
Q

Agonist

A

A substance that binds to a receptor and initiates/activates a response of the receptor

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31
Q

Antagonist

A

A substance that reduces receptor activation by other ligands

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32
Q

What are the 2 types of agonists?

A

Competitive and noncompetitive, where competitive bond to site and prevent endogenous ligand from binding to ion channel and noncompetitive where ligand does not bind to site but still blocks activation of the receptor

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33
Q

What effect can nts have on ionotropic receptors

A

can either open or close the ion channel and in metabotropic receptors, g protein is activated

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34
Q

Is the dose-response curve on a log scale? if so, why?

A

Yes it is, and this is so that equal weight is given to both sides of the curve visually speaking

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35
Q

What is the DRC?

A

A cumulative histogram measuring %response based on dose of a drug

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36
Q

ED50

A

Dose at which 50% of patients respond/produce a specified effect

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37
Q

True or false: a higher ed 50 means the drug is more potent

A

False because a higher ed 50 means it takes more of the drug to achieve the desired effect

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38
Q

What is the therapeutic index?

A

A ratio comparing the ED 50 and LD50 of a drug; wide therapeutic index represents a large difference between average effective and average lethal dose

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39
Q

LD50/TD50

A

Dose that causes 50% of patients to die or to produce an adverse effect

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40
Q

What causes an effective or lethal dose to change for a patient over time?

A

Drug tolerance- can develop over time so that successive treatments have less of an impact

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41
Q

Metabolic tolerance

A

Organs like the liver become better at eliminating the drug from the bloodstream before it even has an effect

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42
Q

Functional tolerance

A

Tissue target changes its physiology in response to the drug

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43
Q

After repeated doses of an agonist drug, what may happen?

A

Fewer receptors present on the surface of the cell so that there are fewer chances for the agonist to have an impact

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44
Q

After repeated doses of an antagonist drug, what may happen?

A

Drug may upregulate+increase number of receptors which makes it more difficult for the antagonist to continue inhibiting receptor function

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45
Q

What drug does opium contain?

A

Morphine

46
Q

What does mophine do and what part does it target?

A

Analgesic and painkiller, targets endogenous opiate receptors and acts as an agonist

47
Q

True or false: opiate drugs like oxycodone, heroin, and morphine are highly addictive

A

True

48
Q

How did the opioid crisis establish its roots in the U.S.?

A

Extended release forms of opiods were manufacured and marketed as a less addictive way of treating chronic pain but crushing the tablets got rid of the extended release idea

49
Q

What do stimulants do, where do they target? Give examples

A

Stimulants are a psychoactive drug used to increase awakeness and act as agonists for glutamate and dopamine- caffeine, nicotine, and amphetamine are all common examples

50
Q

T or F: Adderall, Focalin, and Ritalin is an Amphetamine and a stimulant used to treat ADHD

A

T

51
Q

Short term affects of amphetamines

A

euphoria, alertness, stamina

52
Q

Long-term effects of amphetamines

A

sleeplessness, loss of stamina, deterioration of mental and physical condition, may lead to symptoms of schizophrenia

53
Q

Describe how the meth epidemic may have taken place

A

Meth fairly easy to synthesize, poor rural areas often have a lot of precursor

54
Q

LSD

A

Serotonin/monoamine activator for things like DA and 5HT receptor agonist, derived from ergotamine, leads to hallucinations, may treat depression and anxiety

55
Q

Psilocybin/mushrooms

A

Partial 5HT agonist, especially in visual cortex, modifies activity of frontal and occipital cortex, spiritual feeling/hallucinations, may treat anxiety

56
Q

Ketamine

A

Blocks NMDA receptors important in learning, stimulates opiate and ach receptors, creates a detached state and can treat depression

57
Q

MDMA

A

Release of monoamine neurotransmitters and oxytocin, euphoria, social feelings, can treat ptsd

58
Q

Antipsychotics

A

Typical antipsychotics are DA receptor antagonists to help w/paranoia and hallucinations, atypical antipsychotics help address other symptoms such as social withdrawal

59
Q

Antidepressants

A 
SSRI's and SNRI's-  selective serotonin or serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, prevent reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine from synaptic cleft
Older less prescribed class is MAOI- monoamine oxidase inhibitors that prevent breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters but can be fatal
60
Q

Anaesthetics

A

May antagonize glutamate, agonize gaba, or affect vcNaC’s, produce numbness and unconsciousness

61
Q

Depressants

A

anxiolytic, sedative, hypnotic, targets + agonizes gaba and glycine

62
Q

Marijuana and cannabinoids

A

Derived from cannabis sativa, best known psychoactive compound is delta nine or thc, other compounds include cannabinol, cannabidiol,
Tetrahydrocannabivarin

63
Q

Psychological impacts of cannabis

A

Some excitatory effects but not considered a stimulant, may produce sedative effects but no risk of coma, can produce pain relief and hallucinations but not really related to hallucinogens or opiates

64
Q

How were endocannabinoids discovered?

A

Radiolabeled ligand used, first endocannabinoid called anandamide, most abundand is called 2_AG, cannabinoids are lipid like

65
Q

Medical uses of weed

A

Pain relief, antiemetic, anticonvulsant

66
Q

Which psychoactive drug will be addictive/

A

Those that create a reward response in brain, drugs that don’t elicit as strongly are less likely to be addictive

67
Q

Addiction/SUD

A

preoccupation with obtaining drug, compulsive use despite consequences, high relapse tendency, sustained problems+patterns that interfere with daily life

68
Q

Substance abuse

A

Malapidative use of substance for>1 month that doesn’t meet SUD criteria

69
Q

Tolerance

A

Person needs more of a drug to be able to achieve same effect

70
Q

Withdrawal

A

Negative reaction when drug use stopped

71
Q

What is addiction/SUD characterized by

A

rewiriring of reward system; sex, drugs, gambling, shopping can all initiate dopaminergic signalling in brain from VTA onto nacc but Drugs do this way more

72
Q

How is addiction measured in lab rats?

A

Catheter inserted and connected to a lever, pushing down lever injects drug

73
Q

True or false: dopamine levels as a percent of the baseline are much higher for drugs than for other things that elicit natural rewards like food and sex

A

True, DA levels are with cocaine DA levels were up to 600-700% of baseline compared to 150-200% for food or sex

74
Q

How does cocaine affect DA levels?

A

Cocaine prevents reuptake of dopamine so there is more hanging out in the extracellular space

75
Q

How does amphetamine affect DA levels?

A

Amphetamine sneaks into the presynaptic terminal and forces the outflow of dopamine

76
Q

What do addictive drugs do?

A

Increase output of dopamine from VTA onto nucleus accumbens

77
Q

What is the ideal qualities for a drug to be addictive?

A

Fast onset, multiple consumptions of drug needed (this helps reinforce positive reinforcement and learning) so fast onset, low duration is the most addictive drug

78
Q

Stages of addiction

A

Use: drug is used, causing dopamine release from vta, allowing for positive reinforcement of drug taking behavior
Tolerance: more of drug needed to achieve same effect
Dependence: instead of being needed to feel good, drug is needed to feel normal
Addiction: continued use of drug despite negative effect

79
Q

Describe the stages of binge intoxication

A

binge intoxication, pleasureable effects, abstinence (neutral effect), reward craving

80
Q

Describe the stages of compulsive stage of drug abuse

A

prolonged intoxication, relief, prolonged abstinence (negative effect), relief craving

81
Q

What factors impact drug abuse?

A

Availability/exposure, intensity, duration, frequency, genetics, stress, withdrawal, reward feeligns

82
Q

true or false: loss of gray matter from alcohol is irreversible

A

false, it can be reversed

83
Q

True or false: alcohol use can lead to buildup of triglycerides (fatty liver) and scarring and impaired liver function (cirrhosis)

A

true

84
Q

What deficiencies do cocaine users have

A

deficiencies in executive functions (prefrontal cortex)

85
Q

Why is cocaine so addictive?

A

euphoria and craving

86
Q

What are some difficulties with addiction treatment

A

difficult to treat, high relapse rates, no telling which treatments will or won’t work

87
Q

Behavioral interventions to addiction

A

immersive rehab, group therapy/anonymous groups, lifestyle changes, individual therapy, maybe cbt, dbt, or rebt as they do seem to alleviate some types of symptoms but relapse rates are still high

88
Q

Agonistic addiction treatments

A

mimic effects of drug, like nicotine patch

89
Q

antagonistic drug treatments

A

prevent drug’s effects, like baclofen which interferes w/da pathway

90
Q

Characteristics of invertebrate nervous systems

A

nerve nets, radial nerves, neural rings, simple ganglia

91
Q

characteristics of vertebrate nervous systems

A

central and peripheral nervous systems

92
Q

Advantages to studying simpler nervous systems

A

more simple so basic neuronal processes and behaviors can be better studied+understood

93
Q

common features of vertebrate nervous system

A

bilateral symmetry, segmentation, hierarchical control, separate peripheral and central nervous systems, distinct localization of specialized functions, develop from hollow dorsal neural tube

94
Q

six stages of neural development

A

neurogenesis, cell migration, cell differentiation, synaptogenesis, cell death, synapse rearrangement

95
Q

3 layers of embryo, which one does nervous system come from?

A

endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm (nervous system comes from ectoderm)

96
Q

steps of formation of nervous system

A

totipotent cell, pluripotent cell, zygote creates a hollow ball and then dips within itself to form layers (gastrulation), as cell layers thicken they form a grooveand crests come together to form neural tube, interior of tube becomes ventricals, center of spinal cord, and passages,

97
Q

Parts of developing brain

A

Spinal cord, robencephalon (pons, medulla, cerebellum), mesencephalon (midbrain), and forebrain (diencephalon- thalamus and hypothalamus) and telencephalon (central hemispheres and olfactory bulbs)

98
Q

6 stages of neurodevelopment

A
  1. neurogenesis, where cells of neural tube divide to form progeny cells, noneuronal cells divide through mitosis and form the ventricular zone, cells leave the ventricular zone and become either neurons or glial cells,
  2. Cell migration where cells move towards surface and leave ventricular zone, radial glial cells act as guides and cell adhesion molecules promote adhesion to guard cells
  3. cell differentiation- genes differently expressed so cells specialize
  4. synaptogenesis- establishment of synaptic connections, neurons extend synapses and dendrites to form connections, growth cones contain filopodia that detect chemical cues to facilitate this
  5. cell death based on trophic factors- correct connections allow for correct development of trophic factors without these apoptosis occurs
  6. synapse rearrangement
99
Q

apoptosis stages

A

chromatin condensation, nuclear fragmentation, blebbing, cell fragmentation, consumption by phagocytes

100
Q

What aspects may vertebrate brains vary in?

A

Size, proportions, anatomical locations

101
Q

Define what is meant by cortical real estate

A

the idea that functional regions of the brain vary in size depending on how much the animal uses that function

102
Q

What factors led to the rise of a large brain?

A

Hominid brains enlarged rapidly in our recent evolution
Australopithecines were hominids that made and used tools
Ability to use tools reduced the necessity for large jaws and teeth, freeing up brain space for brain growth
as homo erectus evolved, faces got smaller and brain got larger

103
Q

costs and benefits of large brain

A

long gestation period
prolonged dependence on parents
high metabolic needs
complex genes prone to mutation
increased survival+ability for group interaction in humans
innovative behavior, use of tools, and social learning in humans

104
Q

social brain hypothesis

A

a larger brain is needed to maintain social relationships between similar individuals

105
Q

circadian rhythm definition

A

functions of a living organism that display a cycle of about 24 h

106
Q

what did the hamster do when dark period started later

A

activity started later

107
Q

constnat dim light hamster

A

activity started a little later each day, indicating presence of endogenous clock

108
Q

true or false- endogenous clocks are 24 hours

A

false

109
Q

define entrainment

A

syncing endogenous clock to external cues like zeitgebers

110
Q

what is the biological clock and where is it located

A

suprachiasmatic nucleus in hypothalamus above optic chiasma- lesioned scn shows less periodicity and transplant with 20 hour tau shoes change to tau cycle

111
Q

how does light info enter human brain

A

through retinohypothalamic pathway where retinal ganglion cells contain photosensitve melanopsin

112
Q

molecular basis for clock

A

neurons in scn make clock and cycle, which combine to form a dimer, which enhances DNA production of per and cry, which combine to inhibit clock and cycle, retinal gsnglion cells detect light and release glutamate which triggers production of per, per and cry eventually degrade, takes about 24 hours for this process to occur and inhibition lifts and process restarts The entire cycle takes about 24 hours to complete, and it is this 24-hour molecular cycle that drives the 24-hour activity cycle of SCN cells. Each SCN neuron uses this mechanism to keep time approximately, and then the neurons communicate with each other through electrical synapses (see Chapter 3), synchronizing their activity to produce a very consistent period of about 24 hours (Long et al., 2005). That period then drives circadian processes throughout the body.

Introduction to Neuroscience (3 decks)

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