exam Flashcards
1
Q
DNA is a large molecule made up of a long chain of ______
A
sub-units called nucleotides
2
Q
what is each nucleotide made up of?
A
deoxiribose sugar
phosphate group
organic/nitrogen base
3
Q
a sugar, like glucose, but with only five carbon atoms in its molecule.
A
ribose
4
Q
is almost the same but lacks one oxygen atom.
A
deoxiribose
5
Q
what are the organic bases of DNA?
A
adenine(A)
thymine(T)
cytosine(C)
guanine(G)
6
Q
paired strands are coiled into a spiral
A
double helix
7
Q
who discovered the chemical structure of DNA
A
watson and crick
8
Q
proteins that perform a function
A
enzymes
9
Q
whats the difference between DNA and RNA?
A
DNA contains deoxirobose sugar, RNA contains ribose, DNA contains thymine base, RNA contains uracil base
10
Q
enzyme that breaks the weak bonds holding the 2 strands of DNA molecules together during replication
A
helicase
11
Q
what type of bond forms between the deoxiribose sugar and the nitrogenous base
A
glycosyl
12
Q
enzyme that relaxes DNA molecule exposing the origin of the replication sites for DNA replication
A
DNA gyrase
13
Q
how many primers are required on the leading strand during DNA replication?
A
1
14
Q
what enzyme is responsible for adding the RNA primers during DNA replication
A
RNA primase
15
Q
what enzyme seals the gap along the newly replicated strands during DNA replication
A
DNA polymerase 1
16
Q
replication of DNA results in…
A
2 new strands, each identical in nucleotide sequence
17
Q
during protein syntesis this enzyme is responsible for all the nuclear activites
A
RNA polymerase
18
Q
this type of DNA is an engineered combination of DNA from 2 diff sources
A
recombient DNA
19
Q
to produce DNA fragments, DNA must be cut into smaller pieces by
A
restriction enzymes
20
Q
whats the difference between nonsense and a missense mutation
A
missense change one codon leading to a diff amino acid. Nonsense get rid of or add a codon leading to a “stop” codon or adding another
21
Q
what is 1 advantage CRISPR technologies have over older restriction enzyme techniques
A
the cuts with CRISPR technologies are more precise than the cuts with older restriction enzyme techniques
22
Q
carries protein info from the DNA in cells nucleus to the cells cytoplasm
A
mRNA
23
Q
brings amino acids to the ribosome for protein production
A
tRNA
24
Q
responsible for reading the order of amino acids and linking amino acids together
A
rRNA
25
another term used to describe cell body
soma
26
what are the types of photoreceptors found in the human eye
rods and cones
27
lobe of brain responsible for processing visual info
occiptal
28
what type of neurons are found in the central nervous system
interneurons
29
part of brain that controls autonomic functioning such as heart rate
medulla oblongata
30
the 3 parts that make up the brainstem
pons, medulla oblongata, midbrain
31
what part of brain is responsible for long term memory formation
hippocampus
32
what are the 3 types of neurons
sensory, inter-neurons, and moter neurons
33
These neurons are attached to stimulus receptors and carry messages to the processing centers of the nervous system.
Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)
34
These neurons make up the processing centers of the nervous system.
Inter-Neurons
35
These neurons carry a response message back to either a muscle or a gland.
motor neurons
36
2 mutagens
radiation and chemicals
37
2 qualites scientists attempted to engineer into agricultural plants
health benifits and aesthic appeal
38
what was the goal of the human genome project
to identify the sequence of base pairs that make up human DNA
39
made up of all nerves (neurons) lying outside of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). It functions to maintain homeostasis in the body and is divided into two units: Somatic and Autonomic
peripheral nervous system
40
consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
central nervous system
41
controls voluntary (conscious) responses by activating skeletal muscles. It is comprised of two units: sensory and motor neurons
somatic
42
This system prepares the body for stressful situations as it sets off the “fight or flight” reaction.
sympathetic
42
controls the smooth muscle of the internal organs and glands – the parts of the body outside of conscious control. This division of the nervous system consists of motor neurons only and is made up of two units: sympathetic and parasympathetic system
autonomic
43
This system allows the body to restore itself back to its normal resting state after coping with stress.
Parasympathetic System
44
The largest and most highly developed part of the brain.
It is divided into two large hemispheres (left and right).
cerebrum
45
controls movement of voluntary muscles which includes walking and speech. It is also linked to intellectual activities and learning.
frontal lobe
46
associated with hearing, although it also has links with vision, memory and sensory information interpretation.
The temporal lobe
47
associated with touch and temperature awareness, but it is also linked with emotions and interpreting speech.
parietal lobe
48
responsible for coordinating messages from the cerebrum. controls the subconscious, skeletal muscle contractions required for movement, balance, posture and muscle coordination.
cerebellum
49
responsible for coordinating and interpreting sensory information associated with touch, pain, heat and cold.
thalamus
50
associated with the control of hunger, body temperature, aggression and other aspects related to metabolism. It can be described as the main control center for the body’s internal organs.
hypothalamus
51
means “bridge”. It is appropriately named as it serves as a relay station for information passing between the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the medulla.
pons
52
what does the limbic system include
hypothalamus, hippocampus and the amyglada.
53
controls emotions such as aggression, fear and jealousy.
amyglada
54
specialized cells that wrap tightly around axons to form the myelin sheath. The job of these cells is to speed up the electrical signal (action potential) that travels down an axon.
Oligodendrocytes
55
special immune cells found only in the brain that can detect damaged or unhealthy neurons. They eat foreign invaders (bacteria and viruses), then display the chewed up parts on their cell surface to signal for help.
Microglia
56
lining along the brain ventricles and central canal. provides a leaky barrier between inner and outer regions of the brain, also responsible for secreting cerebral spinal fluid. Cilia extending from the ependymal cells help move the cerebral spinal fluid through the brain cavities.
Ependymal cells
57
star-shaped glia that hold neurons in place, get nutrients to them, and digest parts of dead neurons. But cannot generate action potentials
Astrocytes
58
release their contents through ducts, either within a cavity or onto an outside surface.
Exocrine glands
59
release their products into the bloodstream.
Endocrine glands
60
made up of amino acids, function by attaching to cell membranes of their target cells.
This causes the target cell to release a second messenger that travels through the cell’s cytoplasm where eventually it binds with a specific receptor site
Protein Hormones
61
made up of lipids / cholesterol, are able to penetrate the cell membranes of their target cells.
They attach directly to specific receptor sites inside the target cell.
steriod hormones
62
what gland produces these hormones: Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Growth Hormone (GH)
Prolactin
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone(ACTH)
anterior pituitary
63
what gland produces these hormones: Oxytocin,
Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH)
posterior pituitary
64
ovaries and testes.
gonads
65
affects the gonads, Within the ovaries, it allows the ovarian follicles to mature. The ovarian follicles secrete estrogen. Within the testes, it allows the seminiferous tubules to mature. Sperm are produced in the seminiferous tubules.
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
66
affects the gonads, causes ovulation to occur and progesterone to be released. directs the testes to produce testosterone.
*Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
67
whats *Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) also known as
thyrotropin
68
targets the mammary glands and stimulates the production of breast milk.
*Prolactin (PRL)
69
targets the adrenal cortex (the outer covering of the adrenal glands.
*Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
70
directs the uterus to start contracting in preparation for child birth. It also stimulates the mammary glands to release milk.
*Oxytocin
71
also known as vasopressin. It targets the kidneys and allows the body to retain water.
*Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH)
72
Two important hormones released by the thyroid gland
thyroxine and calcitonin.
73
affects the metabolic processes of the body. It stimulates growth and development of general body cells.
Thyroxine
74
targets bone cells by preventing calcium loss and therefore lowering blood calcium levels.
Calcitonin
75
targets bone cells. It stimulates the release of calcium from the body’s bones which results in higher levels of calcium in the blood. It also enhances absorption of calcium in the kidneys and digestive tract
parathyroid hormone (PTH).
76
releases the hormone melatonin which controls the body’s sleep/wake cycles. Melatonin also appears to have an effect on sexual maturity (puberty).
pineal gland
77
increases the heart rate, raises blood pressure, dilates the bronchioles, and decreases metabolism. This is known as your fight or flight response.
adrenaline/epinephrine
78
involved in the fight or flight response. In particular, it causes a release of glucose from energy stores and increases the oxygen supply to the brain.
norepinephrine.
79
releases two hormones: insulin and glucagon.
pancreas
80
allows the body’s cells to absorb glucose from the blood.
Insulin
81
causes the liver to convert glycogen into glucose which is then released into the blood.
Glucagon
82
releases the hormone, thymosin, which travels through the blood stream and stimulates the development of T cells.
thymus
83
produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone.
ovaries
84
activates the development of female sex characteristics. It also causes the lining of the uterus (endometrium) to thicken in preparation for a possible pregnancy.
Estrogen
85
helps to maintain the lining of the uterus if pregnancy occurs. It also inhibits further ovulation.
Progesterone
86
an example of negative feedback and positive feedback
positive: child birth
negative: blood sugar regulation
87
a thick muscular organ that can expand during pregnancy to accommodate the fetus.
uterus (or Womb)
88
outer layer of uterus
myometrium.
89
the neck of the uterus. it opens into the vagina. helps to hold the developing fetus in place. dilates during the birthing process.
Cervix
90
thin-walled chamber that forms the birth canal and allows sperm to be deposited for fertilization.
vagina
91
fold of the body wall which holds the testes outside of the abdominal cavity.
scrotum
92
where do testes develop
Testes develop in the abdomen, but descend into the scrotum just before birth.
93
where sperm are formed.
seminiferous tubules
94
They consist of highly coiled tubules surrounded by layers of connective tissue. These tubules are the seminiferous tubules
testes
95
what happens if ejaculation occurs
sperm are forced from the epididymis, through the vas deferens.
96
a set of muscular ducts running from the epididymis, out of the scrotum, around and behind the urinary bladder, eventually connecting with the ejaculatory duct.
vas deferens
97
the tube that drains both the excretory and reproductive systems thereby allowing the sperm to be released from the penis.
urethra
98
what are the 3 accessory glands associated with male reproductive system
seminal vesicles, prostate gland , Cowper’s glands (also known as the bulbourethral glands)
99
They secrete a fluid which contains fructose for energy for the sperm and prostaglandins which help the sperm move.
seminal vesicles
100
the largest of the semen-secreting glands. It surrounds the upper portion of the urethra and empties directly into it. It secretes an alkaline buffer which protects the sperm from the acidic environment of the vagina.
prostate gland
101
empty into the urethra at the base of the penis. It secretes a clear mucus before ejaculation to help neutralize any acidic urine remaining in the urethra.
Cowper’s glands (also known as the bulbourethral glands)
102
fertilized egg cell that results from the union of a female gamete (egg, or ovum) with a male gamete (sperm).
Zygote
103
microscopic ball or cluster of cells formed through cell division very early in the embryonic development that occurs after fertilization but before the blastocyst stage.
Morula
104
hollow sphere of cells, or blastomeres, produced during the development of an embryo by repeated cleavage of a fertilized egg.
Blastula
105
cluster of dividing cells made by a fertilized egg. It's the early stage of an embryo.
Blastocyst
106
the early developmental stage of an animal while it is in the egg or within the uterus of the mother.
Embryo
107
an unborn offspring that develops and grows inside the uterus (womb) of humans and other mammals.
Fetus
108
birth process in order:
dilation, expulsion, afterbirth
109
Cellular Growth
Cellular processes and metabolic activities
New organelles formed
DNA replication
Preparation for mitosis
Replication of centrioles
interphase
110
period of cell growth before DNA is replicated
G1(Growth1
111
period when the DNA is duplicated (i.e when chromosomes duplicate)
S(Synthesis)
112
period after DNA has replicated, cell prepares for division (proteins needed for formation of spindle fibers are produced)
G2(Growth 2)
113
Cellular division which occurs in somatic cells.
Results in two daughter cells each identical to the parent cell.
Allows a single cell to grow to a multicellular organism.
Continues to allow growth, repair of damaged or dying cells, and to ensure proper functioning of cells.
Mitosis
114
A cleavage furrow begins as the cytoplasm and cell membrane stretch.
This furrow or indentation will continue until the cells have completely split.
Cytokinesis
115
Nuclear membrane starts to dissolve
Chromosomes shorten and thicken
Spindle fibers begin to form
Centrioles begin to migrate to opposite poles
Early Prophase
116
Nuclear membrane completely dissolved
Centrioles have reached the poles
Chromosomes are attached to spindle fibers
Late Prophase/Prometaphase
117
Chromosomes made up of sister chromatids move toward the center of the cell.
Metaphase
118
Centromeres split and the sister chromatids move to the opposite poles.
Each chromosome is guided along the spindle fiber by the centromere.
The cell begins to elongate.
Anaphase
119
Chromosomes reach the opposite poles.
Cytoplasm continues to lengthen.
Nuclear membrane begins to reform.
Chromosomes will lengthen and become a tangled mass of chromatin.
Telophase
120
Animal vs Plant Mitosis
Animal:
Centrioles/Asters
Cytokinesis due to cleavage furrow formation.
Plant:
No Centrioles or Asters
Cytokinesis due to cell plate formation.
121
Sex Cell Division
Meiosis
122
● XXY (Trisomy)
● Male
● Increased female sex hormones secreted at puberty
● Less testosterone, less body hair
● Increased risk of breast cancer
● 1 in 1000 births
Klinefelter's Syndrome:
123
● One x chromosome (Monosomy)
● Shorter stature
● Loss of ovarian function
● Hormonal therapy an option
● 1 in 2500 newborn girl births
Turner’s Syndrome:
124
● Extra 21st chromosome (trisomy)
● Physical growth delays
● Characteristic facial features
● 1 in 1000 births (average)
● 1 in 40 births (if mother is in her 40s)
Down’s Syndrome:
