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Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Three main components of early atmosphere

A

H2O, CO2, N2

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2
Q

Source of early atmosphere

A

Volcanic

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3
Q

What happened to the oxygen produced by photolysis?

A

Consumed by oxidation of reducing materials

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4
Q

Proto-ocean formed…

A

4 billion years ago

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5
Q

4 records of photosynthesis

A

stable isotopic record of oxygen, banded iron formations, red bed sediments and stromatolites

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6
Q

Has shelf, slope and rise

A

Continental margin

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7
Q

Flattest place on Earth

A

Abyssal plains

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8
Q

How are guyots formed?

A

Erosion of seamount tops

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9
Q

Age of oldest oceanic crust

A

180 million years old

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10
Q

Average spreading subduction rate

A

10-100mm/a

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11
Q

Why do some smaller sediments have slower settling velocities?

A

They have a higher surface area so ‘stick’ together

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12
Q

Where do 60% of riverine lithogenic sediments come from?

A

The Tropics

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13
Q

How fast do ferromanganese nodules grow?

A

1-4mm/Ma

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14
Q

Coccolithophores, foraminifera and pteropods are …. biogenic sediments

A

calcerous

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15
Q

Diatoms and radiolarians are … biogenic sediments

A

siliceous

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16
Q

Distribution of volcanic sediments

A

globally

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17
Q

Most insignificant marine sediment

A

Cosmogenic

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18
Q

Lysocline is where

A

calcite starts to dissolve

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19
Q

CCD depth

A

4-5km

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20
Q

Two types of bulk emplacements

A

slumps and turbidity currents

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21
Q

… of rain falls over ocean

A

78%

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22
Q

Steady states have

A

inputs=outputs

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23
Q

size/(input/output)

A

Residence time

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24
Q

… of radiation emitted by surface reabsorbed by water in atmosphere as long-wave radiation

A

90%

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25
Q

Surrounds ions to dissolve them due to dipole-ion interactions

A

Hydration sheath

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26
Q

Average sea water salinity (0/00)

A

35

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27
Q

Total Dissolved Solids in seawater

A

3500 mg l-1

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28
Q

Most abundant ions in seawater

A

Sodium and bicarbonate

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29
Q

What adds bicarbonate to rivers as there is little in rain?

A

Dissolution of rocks such as limestone

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30
Q

Why is there little silica in seawater?

A

It’s used by marine organisms such as radiolaria

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31
Q

What is salinity?

A

The concentration of all dissolved substances in seawater expressed in ppt as a dimensionless ratio

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32
Q

Why is salinity fairly uniform?

A

Mixing from ocean currents as long residence times

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33
Q

Where is the highest salinity

A

20-30 degrees N/S

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34
Q

How is salinity measured?

A

Measuring electrical conductivity using a salinometer

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35
Q

K, Na, Ca, Mg and Si provided to seawater from where?

A

Weathering of crustal rocks

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36
Q

Volcanism provides what elements?

A

Cl and S

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37
Q

What can be a salinity sink and source?

A

Hydrothermal vents

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38
Q

Evaporate formation, aerosol formation, adsorption and, sedimentation and burial are what?

A

Salinity sinks

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39
Q

How many tonnes of salt do rivers carry to oceans each year?

A

4 billion

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40
Q

Example of secondary minerals formed by weathering

A

orthoclase to kaolinite and dissolved silica

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41
Q

Seawater pH is…

A

8.3-8.5

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42
Q

Dissolved seawater constituents…

A

contribute to salinity

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43
Q

Particulate seawater constituents…

A

accumulate as sediments and break down on the seafloor

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44
Q

Dissolved salts, ions, nutrients, minerals, trace elements, DOM (e.g. DOC) and dissolved gases…

A

Pass the 0.45 micrometre filter (dissolved constituents)

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45
Q

Sediments, dust, ash, exoskeletons, living and dead organic matter…

A

Retained by 0.45 micrometre filter (particulate constituents)

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46
Q

Has the shortest element residence time

A

Al 2+

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47
Q

Major constituents are conservative so…

A

they remain unchanged by chemical or biological reactions

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48
Q

Zooplankton package phytoplankton waste into faecal pellets to be consumed by bacteria called

A

Marine snow (macroscopic aggregation)

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49
Q

Total incoming insolation

A

340 wm-2

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50
Q

Trade winds are

A

easterlies

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51
Q

Wind driven currents move from

A

friction and pressure gradients

52
Q

At right angles to wind from Coriolis force

A

Ekman transport

53
Q

Geostrophic flow when what 2 forces in balance?

A

Pressure gradient and Coriolis force

54
Q

Anticyclonic in N. Hemisphere

A

Clockwise circulation

55
Q

Why does Western Boundary intensification occurs?

A

Coriolis stronger in higher latitudes so affects westerlies more than Trade winds so higher pressure gradient when pushing water west

56
Q

In unstable layering density…

A

decreases with depth

57
Q

Lower latitudes have what type of layering?

A

Stable

58
Q

Thermohaline circulation driven by…

A

density differences

59
Q

75% of clean water has what temperature and salinity

A

0-5 degrees C and 34-35 0/00

60
Q

Deep and bottom layers over…

A

2km

61
Q

A water mass is a …

A

large body from common source region with little changes in salinity and temperature and slow mixing between water masses

62
Q

In MOC after water down wells where does it flow?

A

Along Western boundaries

63
Q

MOC draws…

A

warm water northward

64
Q

Why does upwelling occur at the Southern Ocean?

A

Westerlies around the Antarctic so Ekman transport directed left. Water moves northwards and this must be replenished from depth

65
Q

Why is the Southern Ocean important?

A

Sole place on Earth where all water masses involved in MOC come together, mix and transform

66
Q

El Nino/La Nina temperature anomaly of +/- 0.5 degrees is a standard measure known as what?

A

Oceanic Nino Index

67
Q

What is the Southern Oscillation Index?

A

Tahiti-Darwin monthly mean sea level pressure anomalies hPa

68
Q

Reversed winds in El Nino mean what for Peru Current?

A

It’s weaker so less upwelling

69
Q

What’s displaced by El Nino/La Nina?

A

Walker circulation

70
Q

When North Atlantic Oscillation is in positive mode pressure differences are…

A

higher, so stronger storms

71
Q

What wave type has the wave height?

A

Swell

72
Q

The four factors involved in wind generated waves are…

A

Wind velocity, wind duration, fetch and original sea structure

73
Q

What is significant wave height?

A

The mean wave height of the highest 1/3 of waves?

74
Q

What moves across the sea surface?

A

Wave energy (not particles)

75
Q

Two motions in progressive waves are…

A

forward and orbital

76
Q

When does circulation not reach sea floor?

A

if water depth is equal to or greater than 1/2 the wavelength

77
Q

When wave depth is equal to or less 1/20 of wavelength, what happens?

A

Wave motion is flatter and reaches the seafloor

78
Q

What’s the celerity?

A

Speed at which crests (peaks) propagate

79
Q

What changes happens when waves approach the coast?

A

They slow down (become dependent on water depth for speed), refract to coastline shape and collapse as a shore breaker

80
Q

What remains constant in a wave?

A

The periods

81
Q

Why do waves refract?

A

Slow down due to changes in water depth. A an angle different parts of same crest have different speeds so waves end up reorientating themselves

82
Q

What are the three types of shore breakers?

A

Spilling, plunging and surging

83
Q

What wave type carries the most energy?

A

Tides

84
Q

Why are tides shallow water waves, despite their long wavelengths?

A

Their wavelengths dwarf water depths

85
Q

Why do different latitudes experience different tide types?

A

The declination of the Earth (28.5 degrees) means some areas will enter a bulge once and some twice a day

86
Q

What is the position of celestial bodies during neap tides?

A

Sun and Moon and 90 degrees to each other relative to the Earth

87
Q

What direction does the rotary tide wave move in the Northern Hemisphere?

A

Anti-clockwise

88
Q

Cotidal lines…

A

connect points where high tide (crest of rotary wave) occur at the same time each day

89
Q

Corange lines…

A

link parts of rotary wave with same tidal range

90
Q

What three factors contribute to tidal bores?

A

Large tidal ranges (>5m), tapering basin geometry and water depths decreasing systematically

91
Q

Beaches are…

A

active zones of sediment transportation between an erosional area above sea level and depositional below water level

92
Q

Nearshore contains what 3 zones?

A

swash, surf and breaker

93
Q

Swash zone is…

A

covered and uncovered by water with each surge

94
Q

A beam is…

A

a prominent flat topped wave deposit

95
Q

Backshore zone

A

land adjoining nearshore

96
Q

Offshore zone

A

open water

97
Q

Beach profiles can be…

A

swell (growth) or storm (erosion)

98
Q

Wave setup leads to?

A

Rip currents (after piling of water)

99
Q

Why do longshore currents occur?

A

As there is no room for orbital motion, water is transported on shore and this needs to evacuated and this arises from a water pressure gradient. They diverge at zones of maximum setup and converge at zones of minimum setups

100
Q

Three controls on deltas are…

A

river, wave and tidal

101
Q

Three ways an estuary can be formed?

A

glaciation, drowned rivers and tectonic activity

102
Q

How do concentrations of conservative elements change?

A

Addition or removal of seawater

103
Q

Three minor elements in seawater?

A

N,P and S

104
Q

What is the removal process of components in seawater?

A

Removes substances from the dissolved phase and adds them to the particulate phase which can be removed from the water column via sedimentation

105
Q

What is the removal process of adsorption?

A

When metal ions are attracted to the residual surface charges on particles

106
Q

What happens to the elements in algae derived detritus that were taken up aa biological uptake in primary production?

A

They are released during bacterial breakdown and released at depth to be recycled

107
Q

Mean solar irradiance in Tropics and high latitudes are…

A

9000 and 500 WM-1 respectively

108
Q

What are the three factors that control angle of incidence?

A

Latitude, season and time of day

109
Q

When there is low solar elevation, there is a…

A

high angle of incidence and high reflectance loss

110
Q

Light attenuation controls light underwater and is the combined effects of…

A

absorption and scattering

111
Q

Light attenuation is described by…

A

Beer-Lambert Law

112
Q

Light intensity (I)…

A

decreases exponentially with depth

113
Q

K is usually what?

A

0.02-0.2m-1

114
Q

What zone is between euphotic and aphotic?

A

disphotic

115
Q

What are the three optically active components of seawater?

A

Particulate matter, dissolved matter and water itself

116
Q

Thee euphotic zone depth (Ze) is equal to what?

A

3Zs (3 x Secchi depth)

117
Q

What does the euphotic zone depth represent?

A

The deepest depth primary producers can sustain themselves

118
Q

Why is the part of the ocean south of Greenland cooling?

A

Freshwater inputs mean less dense water formation, destabilising MOC so less heat transported to N. Atlantic

119
Q

How much as the deep ocean warmed?

A

1.4 x 10^23

120
Q

Three types of plastic degradation?

A

Physical, mineralisation and biofouling/defouling

121
Q

Compensation point (GPP=Respiration and NPP=0) represents what?

A

Euphotic zone depth

122
Q

What does primary production depend on?

A

Mixing and stratification?

123
Q

Why, for primary production, are tropical regions nutrient limited?

A

Strong permanent thermocline due to high solar irradiance all year acts as a mixing barrier?

124
Q

Warm core rings are…

A

anticyclonic

125
Q

Three types of tidal power generation

A

Barrages, fences and turbines

126
Q

Three types of wave power generation

A

oscillating water column, float system and overtopping system

127
Q

Advantage of current power

A

Stable and predictable as constant direction

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