exam 1 writing part Flashcards
anatomy
Study of Structures.
Gross anatomy
Study of structure and features visible to the naked eye.
Types of gross anatomy.
l. Surface anatomy
ll. Regional anatomy
III. Systemic anatomy
Microscopic anatomy
Study of structures that can not be seen without magnification.
Two types of Microscopic anatomy.
1.Cytology- Study of cells.
2.Histology- study of tissues.
Four types of tissues
- Nervous tissue
- Muscle tissue
- Epithelium tissue
-Connective tissue
Specialise types of anatomy.
Clinical anatomy
Surgical anatomy
Radiographic anatomy
Cross-section anatomy
Clinical anatomy
Focus on pathological changes during illness
Studies anatomical landmarks important for ______procedures
Surgical anatomy
Radiographic anatomy
perform on entire body to visualise and study anatomical structures.
advance in radiographic anatomy such as computerised tomography. eg- radiographic CT and CT Scans.
Cross-section anatomy
above, at higher level (in the human body, towards the head. e.g: the head is _ to the knee.
Superior
Inferior
Below, at a lower level; toward the feet
Lateral
away from the midline (between your arm and waist.)
Medial
towards the midline.
toward an attached base. eg: the shoulder is _ to the wrist.(from shoulder to wrist)
Proximal
away from attached base. eg: the fingers are _ to the wrist.(fingers and wrist).
Distal
Toward the head. eg: the _ or _ border Of the pelvis is superior to the thigh.
Cranial or Cephalic
Posterior
the back; behind
the back (equivalent to posterior when referring to the human body).
Dorsal
Scapular (shoulder blade) is ____
located posterior to the rib cage.
Anterior
the front, before.
_____ is abdominal side (equivalent to anterior when referring to the human body)
Ventral
Levels of organisation of cells
Atoms-H+ o- >molecules - H2O >macromolecule-c6H2O6 >Organelles - ribosomes >Cells- muscle >Tissue- muscle >Organs- stomach >System- digestion>Organism
Cell theory
Smallest units of life.
cells give rise cells.
chromatin
thread like, found in nondividing cells
Chromosomes/chromatids
found in dividing cells
Peroxisomes
round in the liver (breaks hydrogen peroxide to water)
Cytoskeleton
microtubules/microfilament
Cytosol
Matrix material inside of the cell.
2 types of cell division
mitosis
meiosis
Mitosis
make exact copies of the cell.
Growth
Repair
replacement
do not appear in mitosis as there is no crossover event.
Tetrads
Mitosis starts from
22 to 2 cells>22 ends.2n-2n
Mitosis in human starts at
23 and end at 46
Meiosis
- reduces chromosome number from 2n-n.
- help renew the original number to 26.
_ starts at 46-23
is the foursome during meiosis made by 2 homologous Chromosomes/ that have each already replicated into a pair of sister chromatids.
Tetrads
Sister Chromatids-
Pair of identical copies of DNA, joined at a point
centromere
point where chromosomes are attached to each other
____ is one of the two chromatids of paired homologous chromosomes
Non sister chromatids
one pair of chromosomes with the same gene sequence, loci, chromosome length and centromere location is ___
Homologous chromosomes
During GO stage ___
Cells no longer make new copies. eg: nerve cell.
Interphase
long phase of cell division.
stages in Interphase
G1
G2
S Phase ( DNA replication, makes copy of chromosomes).
___happens in plants (cell plate) and in animal cell (furrow).
Cytoskeleton
Stages in mitosis
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokines
Interphase
nucleolus
nuclear membrane
Chromatin
Prophase
no nucleolus
no nuclear membrane
can see chromosomes
Metaphase
duplicated chromosomes align at equator.
duplicated chromosomes are now seperated into individual chromosomes.
Anaphase
Telophase
furrow forms.
Nucleus begins to reform
Cytoskeleton—
2 identical cells.
G-phase
Increase in enzyme activities and organelles
polar molecules
have a hard time getting in the cell
Non-polar
gets into the cell easily.
Glyco
carbohydrates entitled to protein or lipids.
Glycoprotein/glycolipids are an
important protein part of the cell.
equires not energy.
molecules move down the concentration gradient.
Do not need ATP.
down the concentration gradient -( facilitated).
Passive process
energy required.
movement of things in and out of the cell. (passive active process).
can be direct or indirect.
up the concentration gradient.
Active process
Lipid soluble material
non-polar
if nonpolar it moves through cell easily in diffusion.
Passive transport
water moves through membrane through ___
aquaporins(passive process)
In___direction follows the concentration gradient.
No protein helping
Simple diffusion
solutes are passively transported across a plasmalemma by carrier protein. no protein helping.
Facilitated diffusion
diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. Eg, amino acids.
Osmosis
requires no energy.
molecules move down the concentration gradient.
Do not need ATP.
down the concentration gradient -( facilitated).
Passive process
Lipid soluble material
non-polar.
In Passive transport- if nonpolar it moves through it easily in diffusion, water moves through membrane through
aquaporins
movement of molecules form an area of a higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
Diffusion
concentration gradient
difference between high and low concentration.
Factors affecting rate in diffusion
Size
Charge
Lipid solubility of the diffuse molecule
Presence of membrane channel protein
Temperature
Substance involved in diffusion
Gases
Small inorganic ions and molecules
Lipid-soluble materials
factors affecting rate in osmosis
size of the solute concentration gradient: opposing pressure
Factors affecting rate in facilitated diffusion
Temperature
Charge
Size
Solubility of the solute
Availability of carrier protein
Substance involved facilated diffusion
Glucose
amino acids.
___ is carrier proteins that move one solute in one direction and another solute in the opposite direction.
Exchange pump
Factors affecting rate active transport
availability of carrier protein.
Solutes
ATP
Substance involvedactive transport
Sodium
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium( all cells)
packaging of extracellular materials into a vesicle for importation into the cell.
Endocytosis
In pinocytosis ____ vesicles form at the plasmalemma and bring extracellular fluid and small molecules into the cell.
Cell drinking
Factors affecting rate in pinocytosi
stimulus and mechanism not understood
Substance involved in pinocytosis
Extracellular fluid and its associated solute.
In Phagocytosis ____ vesicles form at the plasmalemma to bring solid particles into the cell.
cell eating
Factors affecting rate in phagocytosis
presence and abundance of extracellular pathogens or debris
Substance involved in phagocytosis
bacteria
viruses
cell debris
In Receptor-mediated endocytosis _____is target molecules bind to specific receptor protein on the surface, triggering vesicles formation
Endocytosis
number of receptors, the plasmalemma and the concentration of the target cell ( called Ligands)
Factors affecting rate endocytosis
substance involvedin endocytosis
cholesterol and iron ions.
The release of fluids and / or solids from cells when intracellular vesicles fuse with plasmalemma.
Exocytosis:
stimuli mechanism incompletely understood,requires ATP and calcium and calcium
factors affecting rate of exocytosis
extracellular waste
secretory products are released by Some cell.
substance involved in exocytosis
Epithelial Tissue
lining surfaces
Expose to the outside. E.g skin, stomach, urethra
Types of epithelial tissue
squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
single layer of thin flattened cell.
Squamous
single layer of cuboid shape cell
Cuboidal
composed of epithelial cells with cilia on their apical surface
Columnar
Under Mesenchyme we have
connective tissue proper
spicialized or supporting connective
fluid connective
connective tissue proper
loose more grounds substance
dense
specialized/supporting connective
cartilage which give rise to bone
fluid connective
blood lymph
loose more ground substance
areolar
adipose
recticular
dense
regular
irregular
elastic
cartilage
hyaline
fibrocartilage
elastic
bones
compact
spongy
embroyonic tissue which gives rise to all connective tissues
Mesenchyme
3 types of muscle tissue
skeletal (involuntary)
cardiac (voluntary)
smooth (voluntary)
skeletal and cardiac muscles are___ and smooth muscle is____
striated
spindle shaped cell (not striated)
Nervous tissue
Neurons: function unit of the nervous tissue
Neuroglia:
Skeletal system
Blood formation
Supports and protects tissues
Stores minerals.
Direct long changes in the activities of other organs system
E.g hormones
Endocrine system
nervous/endocrine system control
homeostasis
Muscular system
Provide movement and support to generate heat.
Directs immediate responses to stimuli
Usually by coordinating the activities of other organs
nervous system
Distribute cells and dissolved materials including
Nutrients
Waste
Gases
Cardiovascular system
Defend against infections and diseases
Lymphatic system
Delivers air to sites where gas exchange occurs between the air and circulating blood
Respiratory system
Process foods and absorb nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and water.
Digestive system
Provides protection from injury and fluid loss
Provides physical defence against infection by microorganism
Involved in temperature control
Integumentary system
Produce gametes, sex cells and sex hormones
Produces offspring
Reproductive system
Removes excess water,salt, and waste products from the blood and body
Controls pH
Urinary system
Defends against microbial pathogens, disease causing agents and other diseases.
Immune system
Simple epithelial tissue
Has only one cell layer
Stratified epithelial tissue
Has two or more layer piled up on each other
