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Bisc 330 Final Exam > Exam 1 Topics > Flashcards

Exam 1 Topics Flashcards

1
Q

Physiology

A

the study of all functions of an organism

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2
Q

Functions

A

any activity or process inherent to an organism that contributes to its viability and/or performance

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3
Q

Examples of Functions

A

Ventilation
sweating
cardiac output
urine formation
cell-to-cell communications
solute transport across a membrane

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4
Q

Functions are _______ __________ in nature

A

highly dynamic

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5
Q

What does it mean that functions are highly dynamic?

A

always changing
rate of the function/magnitude can vary depending on animal

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6
Q

How do we explain function?

A

teleological explanation or mechanistic explanation

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7
Q

Teleological explanation

A

explained as meeting a need

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8
Q

Mechanistic Explanation

A

cause and effect events that are the basis for the function

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9
Q

What does mechanistic explanation require?

A

components involved, property of each component, how/when/where/in what order the components interact

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10
Q

Levels of organization

A

Molecular/chemical
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
Body system
Organismal

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11
Q

Molecular/chemical level

A

carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleic acids
small solutes

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12
Q

Cellular level

A

organelle of executing all processes associated with life

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13
Q

processes associated with life

A
  1. respond to life
  2. chemical reactions to provide energy
  3. all organisms do work
  4. all organisms use metabolism
  5. able to generate repair
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14
Q

Tissue level

A

a group of cells having similar structure and function that interact in ways that yield new functions

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15
Q

Human tissue

A

nervous
muscle
epithelial
connective

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16
Q

nervous tissue

A

transmits information using electrical signals

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17
Q

Muscle tissue

A

generate force by contractions

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18
Q

epithelial tissue

A

specialized to form barriers/borders and transport particular solutes across

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19
Q

Connective tissue

A

specialized to generate an extracellular matrix to when other cells attach

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20
Q

Organ level

A

two or more tissues interacting in ways that yield new functions

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21
Q

Body system level

A

two or more organs interacting in ways that yield new functions

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22
Q

how many body systems do humans have?

A

11

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23
Q

Organismal Level

A

two or more organ/body systems interacting in ways that yield a free living organism

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24
Q

external environment

A

the surrounding environment in which an organism lives

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25
Q

Internal environment

A

the fluid that surrounds the cells and through which they make life-sustaining exchanges

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26
Q

Internal environment fluid compartments

A

Intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid

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27
Q

Intracellular fluid (ICF)

A

the fluid collectively contained within all the body cells (aka cytoplasm)

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28
Q

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

A

all the fluid outside the cells of the body; consists of interstitial fluid, plasma, lymph, and transcellular fluid

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29
Q

what are the components of the ECF?

A

plasma, interstitial fluid, lymph, and transcellular fluid

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30
Q

Plasma

A

fluid component of blood

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31
Q

interstitial fluid

A

fluid that is contained within each organ that surrounds the cells within the organ

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32
Q

Lymph

A

fluid found within the lymphatic vessels

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33
Q

Transcellular Fluid

A

formed by specialized transports activity of epithelial cells

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34
Q

Examples of transcellular fluid

A

urine
sweat
bile
tears
saliva
cerebrospinal fluid

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35
Q

What are chemical properties of ECF?

A

concentrations of each solute

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36
Q

What are physical properties of ECF?

A

temperature
pressure
total water volume

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37
Q

All properties of ECF can be considered what?

A

physiological variables

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38
Q

important observations of homeostasis pt.1

A

an animal’s circumstance can actively perturb one or more variables in ECF

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39
Q

important observations of homeostasis pt.2

A

once perturbed the variables tend to return to their original/initial magnitudes

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40
Q

physiological setpoint

A

the magnitude to which a variable returns after a disturbance

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41
Q

important observations of homeostasis pt.3

A

changes in the rate and/or magnitude of organ and body system functions is necessary for variables to return to their set points

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42
Q

important observations of homeostasis pt.4

A

organs and body systems function as a series of control systems; minimizes perturbances in the variables and promotes their return to set points

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43
Q

Organs and body systems are considered what?

A

control systems

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44
Q

control system components

A
  1. sensor
  2. integrator
  3. effector
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45
Q

sensor

A

monitors magnitude of a variable and communicates this info to other components

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46
Q

integrator

A

receives info from one or more sensors and processes the info in a way that promotes some type of response through other components

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47
Q

effector

A

activity directly (or indirectly) affects the magnitude of one or more variables

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48
Q

Control systems operate as …

A

negative feedback loops

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49
Q

negative feedback loops

A

a process initiated by a change in a variable that produces a response that oppose the initial change

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50
Q

Example of negative feedback loop

A
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51
Q

Why is homeostasis important?

A

maintaining health and viability of cells and thus the animal

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52
Q

Types of control systems

A

intrinsic and extrinsic

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53
Q

Intrinsic control system

A

all components localized in one organ

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54
Q

intrinsic control systems serves….

A

to regulate one or more variables within the ICF of the organ

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55
Q

Extrinsic control system

A

compounds found in more than one organ

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56
Q

Extrinsic control systems …

A

regulate variables within the blood plasma; sensor and integrator components

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57
Q

The plasma membrane is _________ ___________

A

selectively permeable

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58
Q

Selectively permeable

A

a membrane that permits some particles to pass through while excluding others

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59
Q

Two properties of particles influence whether they can permeate the plasma membrane without assistance

A
  1. the relative solubility of the particle in lipid
  2. the size of the particle. highly lipid-soluble particles of any size can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and pass through the membrane
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60
Q

what are some highly lipid-soluble molecules?

A

uncharged or nonpolar molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and fatty acids.

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61
Q

Clinical measures of membrane potential

A

ECG, EMG, and EEG

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62
Q

How do cells generate membrane potential?

A

energy-dependent (active) or passive selective movement of ions across the plasma membrane

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63
Q

what are energy-dependent ions?

A

Na+, K+, and Cl-

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64
Q

what are passive selective ions?

A

Na+ and K+

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65
Q

what causes concentration differences in ions?

A

properties of plasma membrane

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66
Q

Functional Classes of Membrane proteins

A

transporters
channels
receptors
enzymes

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67
Q

Transporters

A

binds one or more specific solutes then moves it across the plasma membrane

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68
Q

3 types of transporters

A

primary active, secondary active, facilitative

69
Q

Primary active transporters

A

hydrolyze (split) ATP to move solutes against their favorable gradient

70
Q

Secondary active transporters

A

uses the favorable gradient of one solute to transport a second solute against its favorable gradient

71
Q

secondary active transporters have

A

symporters and antiporters

72
Q

Symporters

A

both solutes transported in the same direction

73
Q

Antiporters

A

two solutes move in opposite directions

74
Q

Facilitative transporters

A

transports a solute down its favorable gradient

75
Q

Channels

A

proteins that form selective hydrophilic pores through the lipid bilayer

76
Q

Types of Channels

A

ion channels and aquaporins

77
Q

Ion channels

A

allow selective movement of one or more ions across the plasma membrane

78
Q

How do ions move through ion channels?

A

ions how through channels in their favorable gradients or they move by diffusion

79
Q

Aquaporins

A

allow H2O to move across the plasma membrane

80
Q

How does H2O move through aquaporins?

A

moves down its favorable gradient by diffusion
difference in osmolarity between two fluid compartments

81
Q

Osmolarity

A

moves from lower to higher osmolarity

82
Q

Receptors

A

selectively bind a solute and initiate some type of cellular response

83
Q

Enzymes

A

increase the rate of chemical reaction

84
Q

Energy-dependent movement of Na+, K+, and Cl-

A

Na/K ATPase (Na/K pump) actively transports Na and K across the pm
K/Cl symporter

85
Q

IV fluid bags

A

0.9% NaCl (weight of the fluid that is the solute)

86
Q

Passive selective movement of ions

A

diffusion down favorable gradient

87
Q

Requirements for net ion diffusion across the membrane

A
  1. force acting on the ion
  2. membrane has to be permeable to the ion
88
Q

Forces required for net ion diffusion

A

chemical force (concentration gradient) and electrical force

89
Q

what is driving ion diffusion?

A

net electrochemical gradient

90
Q

Net ion diffusion creates membrane potential

A

charge of ion and direction of diffusion determines if it is positive or negative

91
Q

Nernst equation

A

predict the magnitude of membrane potential based on concentration gradient of an ion

92
Q

Nernst equation is only accurate if?

A

membrane is only permeable to one ion
ion has reached equilibrium

93
Q

What is the resting membrane potential in a cell?

A

-70 mV in neurons

94
Q

what is the equilibrium potential for Na?

A

+61 mV

95
Q

What is the equilibrium potential for K?

A

-90 mV

96
Q

Molecular basis for plasma membrane ion permeabilities causing diffusion

A

presence of ion channels

97
Q

Permeability differences depends on?

A
  1. density of each type of ion channel
  2. activity state of each channel (open or closed)
  3. sub-types of channels present
98
Q

What are the subtypes of ion channels?

A

mechanically gated channels
ligand gated channels
voltage gated channels
leak channels

99
Q

What channels are in a closed state in unstimulated neurons?

A

mechanically, ligand, and voltage gated channels

100
Q

Leak channels

A

determines resting state p.m. ion permeabilities

101
Q

What channels are in an open state in unstimulated neurons?

A

Leak channels

102
Q

There are larger density of ____ than ____ leak channels in neurons

A

K+ ; Na+

103
Q

Why are there larger densities of K+ than Na+ leak channels in neurons?

A

difference in membrane ion permeability

104
Q

GHK equation

A

the voltage difference between the inside and outside of the cell, takes into account relative permeabilities and concentration gradients of all permeable ions

105
Q

Plasma membrane diffusional ion permeabilities are determined by?

A

ION CHANNELS

106
Q

Basic neuron morphology

A

dendrites
cell body
axon hillock
axon
axon terminals

107
Q

measurement of cell body

A

20 microns

108
Q

measurement of dendrites

A

200 microns

109
Q

measurement of azon

A

1,000 - 1,000,000 microns

110
Q

long axon

A

dendrites are often in different locations within the body than the axon terminals

111
Q

Uniform distribution through out the neuron’s pm…

A

Na+/K+ ATPase and Na+ and K+ leak channels

112
Q

Restricted distribution of

A

gated ion channels

113
Q

Voltage gated channels are found mostly where?

A

axon hillock, down the axon, and into the terminals

114
Q

Other types of gated channels are found where?

A

located in dendrites and cell body

115
Q

Basic function of all neurons is

A

detect, transduce, and transmit info about a stimuli and communicate this to other cells

116
Q

what is info about a stimulus?

A

intensity and duration of stimulus

117
Q

where can a stimulus that is detected come from?

A

outside the body or within the body (physiological variables)

118
Q

Dendrites

A

detect and transduce stimulus

119
Q

axon hillocks and axons

A

transmitting info to axon terminals

120
Q

axon terminals

A

communicate with other cells

121
Q

Graded potential

A

a change in the resting membrane potential that occurs in varying grades of magnitude

122
Q

serves as a short-distance signal in excitable tissues

A

graded potentials

123
Q

Action Potential

A

a rapid, large, patterned change in the resting membrane potential; all or none

124
Q

Depends on the voltage gated channels

A

action potential

125
Q

Detection of an external stimulus through dendrites

A

presence of specialized stimulus gated channels with in dendrite p.m. (NOT voltage gated channels)

126
Q

Transduction of info about a stimulus

A
  1. stimulus intensity transduction
  2. stimulus duration transduction
127
Q

Stimulus intensity transduction: low intensity stim

A

causes small % of stimulus graded channels to change their activity state; small GP

128
Q

Stimulus intensity transduction: high intensity stim

A

causes larger % of ion channels to change their activity state; Large GP

129
Q

Intensity of stimulus if transduced into?

A

magnitude of GP

130
Q

Stimulus duration transduction

A

determines how long ion channels activity state changes; stimulus duration is 1 sec = GP is 1 sec

131
Q

Graded potentials move along the p.m….

A

by current flow along the membrane to adjacent regions still at resting membrane potential

132
Q

Graded potentials are decrementing

A

their magnitude decreases as they move

133
Q

Graded potentials die out within?

A

~1,000 microns

134
Q

transmission of stimulus info over the very long distance of axons occurs through what?

A

action potentials

135
Q

7 Properties of Action Potentials

A
  1. APs are first generated at axon hillock
  2. Triggered by a depolarizing current moving along the membrane
  3. First phase of the AP characterized by rapid depolarization that approaches Ena (+61 mV)
  4. second phase- rapid repolarization followed by a hyperpolarization that approaches Ek = -90 mV
  5. at the axon hillock where APs start, they are all-or-none
  6. once triggered at hillock, APs propagate along the axon in a regenerative manner
    7.APs have an absolute refractory period
136
Q

Action potential absolute refractory period

A

time during which the membrane cannot generate another AP; caused by inactivation of v-gated Na+ channels

137
Q

Absolute refractory period is important for 2 reasons

A
  1. APs are not additive
  2. causes unidirectional movement of APs
138
Q

Orthodromic Conduction

A

axon hillock > axon > axon terminals

139
Q

Antidromic Conduction

A

axon terminals > axon > axon hillock

140
Q

How do action potentials communicate info about stimulus intensity and duration?

A

intensity: coded by AP frequency
Duration: is communicated by duration of AP frequency generated

141
Q

Low magnitude depolarizing graded potential generates

A

low action potential frequency

142
Q

High magnitude depolarizing graded potential generates

A

high action potential frequency

143
Q

Conduction Velocity of Action Potentials

A
  1. vary in different types of neurons
  2. low speed = 0.5 meters/sec
    high speed = 120 meters/sec
144
Q

what has a major impact on the rate at which you can react to a stimulus

A

conduction velocity

145
Q

2 factors determine conduction velocity

A
  1. axon diameter
  2. myelination state of axon
146
Q

larger the axon diameter

A

the higher the conduction velocity

147
Q

myelinated axons

A

greatly increases action potential conduction velocity

148
Q

Myelin

A

segment of axon that is covered in glial cell

149
Q

Glial cell

A

type of cell in nervous system

150
Q

what forms myelin

A

oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells

151
Q

Action potentials are means by which …

A

neurons transmit info about a stimulus over long distances; initiate communication with other cells

152
Q

toxins that are lethal

A

tetrodotoxin and conotoxin

153
Q

what do tetrodotoxin and conotoxin do?

A

bind to and inhibit voltage gated Na channels

154
Q

what are the medical uses for Na voltage gated inhibitors?

A

lidocaine and procaine

155
Q

Neurons communicate with other

A

neurons

156
Q

arrangement of neurons

A

in-series, in-parallel, convergent, and divergent

157
Q

Excitatory post synaptic potential

A

brings the axon hillock closer to threshold

158
Q

Inhibitory post synaptic potential

A

moves the axon hillock further away from threshold

159
Q

Duration of EPSP/IPSP

A

20-40 msec

160
Q

What causes EPSP or IPSP to end? what causes longer duration of these?

A

removal of NT from the synaptic cleft

161
Q

How are NT removed from the synaptic cleft?

A
  1. reuptake of NT into the axon terminal
  2. degradation of NT within the cleft (enzymes)
  3. Diffusion of NT out of the cleft
162
Q

How are post synaptic neurons brought to threshold?

A

summation

163
Q

Summation

A

increasing magnitude of EPSP

164
Q

types of summation?

A

temporal summation and spacial summation

165
Q

temporal summation

A

two or more APs occuring in a sufficiently short time period to have additive effects on the EPSP

166
Q

Action potential frequency

A

number of APs occuring in a specific time period

167
Q

Spacial summation

A

convergent arrangement of neurons

168
Q

Grand postsynaptic potential

A

convergence of two or more GPs at the axon hillock which effects the overall magnitude of the GP

169
Q

2 factors determine whether a postsynaptic neuron reaches threshold

A
  1. the number of active EPSP and IPSP synapses at any given time
  2. degree of temporal summation at each active synapse

Bisc 330 Final Exam (3 decks)

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