Exam 1 Study Guide

Question 1

Gene:

Answer 1

Section of DNA that codes for a protein that usually impacts the expression of a physical trait.

Question 2

Evolution:

Answer 2

Change in the Frequency of an Allele from one generation to the next

Question 3

Locus:

Answer 3

Locus: The Spot on a Chromosome where a particular gene is found
◦ Remember, there are many different genes on every individual chromosome

Question 4

Allele:

Answer 4

Allele: Different form of a Gene. Think about X and x. They are two seperate alleles that could code for the same gene.

Question 5

Genotypes:

Answer 5

Genotypes: Genetic Makeup of an Organism/Individual ….

• Genome: (All of the Alleles that an organism has)

Question 6

Phenotype:

Answer 6

Phenotype: Expressed “Physical” Traits of an Organism

Question 7

Genetic Variation:

Answer 7

Genetic Variation: Organisms that have a variation in their genetic makeup or physical expression to a certain extent.

Question 8

Species:

Answer 8

Species: Group of individuals that can exchange genetic material with one another.
◦ Each individual is a different combination of the alleles that are present in that population

Question 9

‣ Gene Pool:

Answer 9

‣ Gene Pool: All of the alleles present in that species population
• The larger variation in genetic material, the bigger the possible ‘gene’ pool

Question 10

Population:

Answer 10

Population: Group of organisms of the same species that live in a defined geographic area

Question 11

Population Genetics:

Answer 11

Population Genetics: The Study of the Patterns of Genetic Variation
◦ Allows us to make inferences based on the patterns of genetic inheritance seen in a given population, determining which Characteristics/genes make an organisms fitness increase.

Question 12

Recombination:

Answer 12

Recombination: Shuffles mutations to produce new sequences.
• Has to do with “Crossing-Over” in Miosis.

Question 13

Crossing-Over:

Answer 13

Crossing-Over: Swapping little portions of the Chromosomes during Meiosis I, which gives us genetic Variation

Question 14

Germ-Line Mutations:

Answer 14

Germ-Line Mutations: Mutation that occurs in the formation of a Gamete.
◦ Resulting mutation of a gamete results in an organism that has that mutation that can be passed to offspring

Question 15

Somatic Mutation:

Answer 15

Somatic Mutation: Mutation that occurs in a non-reproductive cell. Which can’t be passed onto offspring.

Question 16

• Deleterious Variation:

Answer 16

• Deleterious Variation: Harmful to the organism, makes it harder for it to survive and reproduce

Question 17

• Neutral Variation:

Answer 17

• Neutral Variation: Little to no change to the “Fitness” of the organism

Question 18

• Advantageous Variation:

Answer 18

• Advantageous Variation: Makes it easier for it to survive and reproduce (Increase in Fitness).
◦ Advantageous Variations will increase in subsequent generations, leading to an Adaptation over time.

Question 19

Adaptation:

Answer 19

Adaptation: Genetic change that makes an individual more likely to survive and reproduce in it’s environment

Question 20

Fixed Allele:

Answer 20

Fixed Allele: Either a Neutral or Advantageous variation that becomes more and more present in the population until 100% of the population has it. This means that the Allele rate in the Ratio is 100% For Example: If every single flower has PP and nothing else, we know that it is a fixed allele.

Question 21

Test Cross:

Answer 21

Test Cross: Breeding an unknown genotype with a Homozygous Recessive will allow for us to determine the genotype of our unknown organism
◦ Usually includes a “Punnett square.”

Question 22

Fitness:

Answer 22

Fitness: Measure of how well an Individual’s genotype is represented in the next generation
◦ Organisms that survive and reproduce will have a higher fitness than those that don’t.

Question 23

Complex Traits:

Answer 23

Complex Traits: Continuous variation, not simply an either-or… Think of height: it isn’t just super tall or super short, there are all sorts of variations in the middle

Question 24

Artificial Selection:

Answer 24

Artificial Selection: Breeders intentionally breed organisms with desirable traits with other animals in a controlled measure to hopefully create offspring with the desirable trait.

Question 25

Stabilizing Selection:

Answer 25

Stabilizing Selection: Stabilizing selection selects against the extremes (both sides), pushing the curve into the middle

Question 26

Directional Selection:

Answer 26

Directional Selection: Selects against one of the two extremes, pushing it in one particular direction * Supports the average and one extreme, just not the other side

Question 27

Disruptive Selection:

Answer 27

Disruptive Selection: Selects against the mean, pushing away from the middle and towards both extremes.

Question 28

Sexual Selection:

Answer 28

Sexual Selection: Selection that promotes and individual’s access to mating.

Question 29

Adaptation:

Answer 29

Adaptation: Genetic change that increases an organisms ability to survive and reproduce (Increases fitness). * Natural Selection is the ONLY force that leads to adaptation

Question 30

How does Migration/Immigration cause gene flow?

Answer 30

• Migration/Immigration ◦ Causes Gene Flow: Movement of individuals/alleles from one population to another

Question 31

• Mutation:

Answer 31

• Mutation: Change in Nucleotide Sequence/DNA that creates a new allele that codes for a Gene/trait.

Question 32

• Genetic Drift:

Answer 32

• Genetic Drift: Random Change in Allele frequencies due to the effects of a small population size ◦ Doesn’t have to be purely beneficial. Genetic Drift can occur with Neutral traits that doesn’t increase or decrease fitness.

Question 33

‣ Fixed Allele/Fixation:

Answer 33

‣ Fixed Allele/Fixation: 100% Frequency of any given allele amongst the entire population

Question 34

‣ Extinction:

Answer 34

‣ Extinction: When an Allele reaches a frequency of 0% in the entire population

Question 35

Genetic Bottleneck:

Answer 35

Genetic Bottleneck: Genetic Variation is decreased due to a population crash — leaving just a little bit of genetic variation into the current population.

Question 36

Founders Effect:

Answer 36

Founders Effect: If you create a new population, the only genetic material in it will come from the founding group. Which means that the newly developed population will have a different Allele frequencies than the original population (That the “founders” left).

Question 37

Divergence:

Answer 37

Divergence: Two groups that live separately from one another tend to have different genomes ◦ Molecular Evolution ‣ Different mutations accumulate separately in each population, but because the two populations are separate from one another — the mutations won’t be shared. • So each population will slowly accumulate more and more mutations

Question 38

Molecular Clock:

Answer 38

Molecular Clock: Using the amount of change in two populations to estimate how long they have been seperated for. • The extent of Genetic Divergence is a function of time since isolation from one another ◦ This can be challenging, because some genes are better conserved than others.

Question 39

Biological Species Concept (BSC):

Answer 39

Biological Species Concept (BSC): A group of inter-breeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups. ◦ Must Be able to create offspring that are fertile and capable of producing their own offspring ‣ Mule (Horse and Donkey offspring) aren’t capable of reproducing, because they are sterile/infertile.. Which means that Horse and Donkeys are different Species. ◦ Proposed by Ernst Mayer (1960s). Fundamental Biological Unit.

Question 40

Ring Species:

Answer 40

Ring Species: Two Populations that form a “ring” and at one place they are capable of inter-breeding, even though the densest parts of the population don’t interbreed.

Question 41

Ecological Species Concept:

Answer 41

Ecological Species Concept: • Competitive exclusion, which says that two species cannot fill the same Niche at the same time ‣ Proposed by “Gause” ◦ Niche: Role an organisms fills in it’s environment. How it interacts with the living and non-living components of his organism.

Question 42

Evolutionary Species Concept:

Answer 42

Evolutionary Species Concept: All members of a species are descended from a common ancestor

Question 43

Allopatric Speciation:

Answer 43

Allopatric Speciation: Diverging into two different species in different areas, without gene flow between the two

Question 44

• Vicariance:

Answer 44

• Vicariance: Geographical barrier that seperates one starting population into two populations. ◦ Example: Snapping Shrimp

Question 45

• Simple Dispersal:

Answer 45

• Simple Dispersal: Colonization of a distant area

Question 46

◦ Peripatric Speciation: (A type of Allopatric Speciation)

Answer 46

◦ Peripatric Speciation: Dispersal to a nearby place. (Like an island) • The main population seeds a small population in a new envrionment. This is essentially a “founders” effect. After establishing their new home, the new population doesn’t exchange genetic information with the original population. Instead, they begin to diverge from one another. ‣ Think about birds that inhabit space in New Guinea.

Question 47

• Adaptive Radiation :

Answer 47

• Adaptive Radiation : A group of organisms in an area where you can get a lot of selection, which allows for organisms to adapt to the environment… by either developing more extreme parts of the traits, or staying moderate due to competition.

Question 48

Co-Speciation:

Answer 48

Co-Speciation: Two completely different species that evolve in the same way, at the same time, in response of one another. • example: Lice adapting with Pocket Gophers, so that they can still survive the envrionments their hosts live in.

Question 49

Sympatric Speciation:

Answer 49

Speciation with Gene flow between the diverging populations

Question 50

Polyploidy:

Answer 50

More than two sets of genetic information (3n/4n, etc) * Diploid would be 2n with 2 sets of genetic information

Question 51

Domain of Bacteria and Archea are composed of (Prokaryotes or Eukaryotes)?

Answer 51

Answer: They are both composed of Prokaryotes

Question 52

Domain of Eukarya is composed of (Eukaryotes or Prokaryote’s)?

Answer 52

Answer: Eukaryotes!

Question 53

Scientific Name: _____ + ______

Answer 53

Genus + species Dear King Philip Came Over From Great Spain Domain, Kingdom, Philemon, Class, Order, Family, Genus + Species,

Question 54

EndoSymbiont Theory —> Lynn Margulis (1966).

Answer 54

EndoSymbiont Theory —> Lynn Margulis (1966). • Inside the cell, we have some sort of Symbiotic Relationship Occurring, • Ancestral Prokaryote consumed an “Aerobic Heterotrophic Prokaryote” which became a Mitochondria, and Photosynthetic Prokaryotes which became Plastids/Chloroplasts. Support for the EndoSymbiont Theory: • Inner Membrane lipids of mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar to their prokaryotic counterparts.

Question 55

Symbiosis:

Answer 55

Symbiosis: Two organisms living in close association with one another.

Question 56

• Mutualism Symbiosis:

Answer 56

• Mutualism Symbiosis: Both Organisms benefit from this relationship ◦ Example: Clown Fish and a Sea Anemone

Question 57

• Parasitism Symbiosis:

Answer 57

• Parasitism Symbiosis: One Organism is benefited from the relationship, but the other organism is harmed by it.

Question 58

• Commensalism Symbiosis:

Answer 58

• Commensalism Symbiosis: One Organism benefits from the relationship, and the other organism isn’t really impacted by the relationship.

Question 59

Complex Multi-Cellular Organisms: •

Answer 59

Multi-Cellular Organisms: • Form True Tissues: ◦ Tissues: A collection of cells that work together to perform a specific function ‣ Only Eukaryotes can form Tissues

Question 60

• What are the Characteristics of Simple-Multicellularity? (A grouping of Eukaryotic Cells, not a whole animal):

Answer 60

• Simple-Multicellularity: Cells are hooking together, but they aren’t really working together in a coordinated manner. ◦ Poor Communication between one another, and they don’t share resources. ◦ In Contact with the Environment ◦ No Tissues.

Question 61

What are the components of Complex-Multicellularity? (Think of an actually Animal, like a Jaguar):

Answer 61

Complex-Multicellularity: Has True Tissues ◦ Complex Multicellularity has evolved at least 6 Separate Times. • Most Plants and Animals

Question 62

Bulk Transport:

Answer 62

Bulk Transport: Movement of Molecules through an Organism in an active circulation of fluids or Air. • Moth Complex-Multicellular Organisms have to rely on a Bulk Transport system

Question 63

Adhesions: Cadherins and Integrins

Answer 63

A. Cadherin: are transmembrane proteins that help hold cells together (especially in Epithelial tissues). B. Integrin: Helps bind a cell to something else (other than a cell) —> using the Extracellular Matrix. C. Pectin: is the matrix used in plants to glue plant cells together.

Question 64

Cellular Communication in Animal and Plant Cells:

Answer 64

Cellular Communication in Animal and Plant Cells: In animal cells, there are “Gap Junctions” which are these intercellular connections that are made up of a ring of proteins. ◦ Allow for more communication between Animal Cells In Plant Cells, there are these holes called “Plasmodesmata” which are intercellular connections lined by extensions of the cell membrane. ◦ Allow for communication between Plant Cells

Question 65

Plant Growth & Development:

Answer 65

Plant Growth & Development: - Cell Division (Mitosis) ◦ Totipotent Cells (Meristem’s —- Which are the “Stem” cells that are capable of specializing). are capable of going through Mitosis • Cell Expansion (Elongation) ◦ Cell Takes on water, and fills the “Vacuole” with Water — which lets them expand. • Cell Differentiation —> Signaling Molecules ◦ Will Tell the cell wha responsibilities it will be assigned; so those cells grow into their specialities

Question 66

What are the 3 Steps of Molecular Signaling? (Which are Usually Proteins that interact with a receptor). ◦ Evolved through Single-Celled Organisms

Answer 66

Molecular Signaling: (Which are Usually Proteins that interact with a receptor). ◦ Evolved through Single-Celled Organisms 1. Reception (Signal molecule actually receiving the signal) 2. Transduction (Activation of the Relay Molecule — which tells the rest of the cell that a signal was recieved. 3. Response: This Message Activates some sort of Cellular Response

Question 67

Animal Growth & Development:

Answer 67

Animal Growth & Development: • Zygote goes through mitosis and becomes a Blastula ◦ Blastula: Hollow Ball of Cells that are linked together. Gastrulation: Folding inwards Gastrula: Multi-Layered Developing Animal. ◦ Results in a tube, within a tube

Question 68

Evolution of Multi-Cellularity

Answer 68

Evolution of Multi-Cellularity (In Order): • 1). Adhesion • 2). Complex Communication • 3). Bulk-Transport • 4). Coordinated Growth and Development

Question 69

Evolution of Multi-Cellularity by Year

Answer 69

• 1st Complex Multi-Cellulars (575 Million Years Ago). • 1st Head + Tail (560 MYO). • 1st Muscles + Bulk Flow (555 MYO) • Complex Land Plants (400 MYO). • Complex Fungi on Land 375 MYO).