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BI-122: Foundations Of Organismal Biology > Exam 1 Study Guide > Flashcards

Exam 1 Study Guide Flashcards

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1
Q

Gene:

A

Section of DNA that codes for a protein that usually impacts the expression of a physical trait.

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2
Q

Evolution:

A

Change in the Frequency of an Allele from one generation to the next

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3
Q

Locus:

A

Locus: The Spot on a Chromosome where a particular gene is found
◦ Remember, there are many different genes on every individual chromosome

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4
Q

Allele:

A

Allele: Different form of a Gene. Think about X and x. They are two seperate alleles that could code for the same gene.

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5
Q

Genotypes:

A

Genotypes: Genetic Makeup of an Organism/Individual ….

  • Genome: (All of the Alleles that an organism has)
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6
Q

Phenotype:

A

Phenotype: Expressed “Physical” Traits of an Organism

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7
Q

Genetic Variation:

A

Genetic Variation: Organisms that have a variation in their genetic makeup or physical expression to a certain extent.

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8
Q

Species:

A

Species: Group of individuals that can exchange genetic material with one another.
◦ Each individual is a different combination of the alleles that are present in that population

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9
Q

‣ Gene Pool:

A

‣ Gene Pool: All of the alleles present in that species population
• The larger variation in genetic material, the bigger the possible ‘gene’ pool

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10
Q

Population:

A

Population: Group of organisms of the same species that live in a defined geographic area

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11
Q

Population Genetics:

A

Population Genetics: The Study of the Patterns of Genetic Variation
◦ Allows us to make inferences based on the patterns of genetic inheritance seen in a given population, determining which Characteristics/genes make an organisms fitness increase.

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12
Q

Recombination:

A

Recombination: Shuffles mutations to produce new sequences.
• Has to do with “Crossing-Over” in Miosis.

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13
Q

Crossing-Over:

A

Crossing-Over: Swapping little portions of the Chromosomes during Meiosis I, which gives us genetic Variation

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14
Q

Germ-Line Mutations:

A

Germ-Line Mutations: Mutation that occurs in the formation of a Gamete.
◦ Resulting mutation of a gamete results in an organism that has that mutation that can be passed to offspring

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15
Q

Somatic Mutation:

A

Somatic Mutation: Mutation that occurs in a non-reproductive cell. Which can’t be passed onto offspring.

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16
Q

• Deleterious Variation:

A

• Deleterious Variation: Harmful to the organism, makes it harder for it to survive and reproduce

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17
Q

• Neutral Variation:

A

• Neutral Variation: Little to no change to the “Fitness” of the organism

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18
Q

• Advantageous Variation:

A

• Advantageous Variation: Makes it easier for it to survive and reproduce (Increase in Fitness).
◦ Advantageous Variations will increase in subsequent generations, leading to an Adaptation over time.

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19
Q

Adaptation:

A

Adaptation: Genetic change that makes an individual more likely to survive and reproduce in it’s environment

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20
Q

Fixed Allele:

A

Fixed Allele: Either a Neutral or Advantageous variation that becomes more and more present in the population until 100% of the population has it. This means that the Allele rate in the Ratio is 100% For Example: If every single flower has PP and nothing else, we know that it is a fixed allele.

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21
Q

Test Cross:

A

Test Cross: Breeding an unknown genotype with a Homozygous Recessive will allow for us to determine the genotype of our unknown organism
◦ Usually includes a “Punnett square.”

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22
Q

Fitness:

A

Fitness: Measure of how well an Individual’s genotype is represented in the next generation
◦ Organisms that survive and reproduce will have a higher fitness than those that don’t.

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23
Q

Complex Traits:

A

Complex Traits: Continuous variation, not simply an either-or… Think of height: it isn’t just super tall or super short, there are all sorts of variations in the middle

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24
Q

Artificial Selection:

A

Artificial Selection: Breeders intentionally breed organisms with desirable traits with other animals in a controlled measure to hopefully create offspring with the desirable trait.

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25
Q

Stabilizing Selection:

A

Stabilizing Selection: Stabilizing selection selects against the extremes (both sides), pushing the curve into the middle

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26
Q

Directional Selection:

A

Directional Selection: Selects against one of the two extremes, pushing it in one particular direction
* Supports the average and one extreme, just not the other side

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27
Q

Disruptive Selection:

A

Disruptive Selection: Selects against the mean, pushing away from the middle and towards both extremes.

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28
Q

Sexual Selection:

A

Sexual Selection: Selection that promotes and individual’s access to mating.

29
Q

Adaptation:

A

Adaptation: Genetic change that increases an organisms ability to survive and reproduce (Increases fitness).

  • Natural Selection is the ONLY force that leads to adaptation
30
Q

How does Migration/Immigration cause gene flow?

A

• Migration/Immigration
◦ Causes Gene Flow: Movement of individuals/alleles from one population to another

31
Q

• Mutation:

A

• Mutation: Change in Nucleotide Sequence/DNA that creates a new allele that codes for a Gene/trait.

32
Q

• Genetic Drift:

A

• Genetic Drift: Random Change in Allele frequencies due to the effects of a small population size
◦ Doesn’t have to be purely beneficial. Genetic Drift can occur with Neutral traits that doesn’t increase or decrease fitness.

33
Q

‣ Fixed Allele/Fixation:

A

‣ Fixed Allele/Fixation: 100% Frequency of any given allele amongst the entire population

34
Q

‣ Extinction:

A

‣ Extinction: When an Allele reaches a frequency of 0% in the entire population

35
Q

Genetic Bottleneck:

A

Genetic Bottleneck: Genetic Variation is decreased due to a population crash — leaving just a little bit of genetic variation into the current population.

36
Q

Founders Effect:

A

Founders Effect: If you create a new population, the only genetic material in it will come from the founding group. Which means that the newly developed population will have a different Allele frequencies than the original population (That the “founders” left).

37
Q

Divergence:

A

Divergence: Two groups that live separately from one another tend to have different genomes
◦ Molecular Evolution
‣ Different mutations accumulate separately in each population, but because the two populations are separate from one another — the mutations won’t be shared.
• So each population will slowly accumulate more and more mutations

38
Q

Molecular Clock:

A

Molecular Clock: Using the amount of change in two populations to estimate how long they have been seperated for.
• The extent of Genetic Divergence is a function of time since isolation from one another
◦ This can be challenging, because some genes are better conserved than others.

39
Q

Biological Species Concept (BSC):

A

Biological Species Concept (BSC): A group of inter-breeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
◦ Must Be able to create offspring that are fertile and capable of producing their own offspring

	‣ Mule (Horse and Donkey offspring) aren’t capable of reproducing, because they are sterile/infertile.. Which means that Horse and Donkeys are different Species. 

◦ Proposed by Ernst Mayer (1960s).  Fundamental Biological Unit.
40
Q

Ring Species:

A

Ring Species: Two Populations that form a “ring” and at one place they are capable of inter-breeding, even though the densest parts of the population don’t interbreed.

41
Q

Ecological Species Concept:

A

Ecological Species Concept:
• Competitive exclusion, which says that two species cannot fill the same Niche at the same time
‣ Proposed by “Gause”
◦ Niche: Role an organisms fills in it’s environment. How it interacts with the living and non-living components of his organism.

42
Q

Evolutionary Species Concept:

A

Evolutionary Species Concept: All members of a species are descended from a common ancestor

43
Q

Allopatric Speciation:

A

Allopatric Speciation: Diverging into two different species in different areas, without gene flow between the two

44
Q

• Vicariance:

A

• Vicariance: Geographical barrier that seperates one starting population into two populations.
◦ Example: Snapping Shrimp

45
Q

• Simple Dispersal:

A

• Simple Dispersal: Colonization of a distant area

46
Q

◦ Peripatric Speciation: (A type of Allopatric Speciation)

A

◦ Peripatric Speciation: Dispersal to a nearby place. (Like an island)
• The main population seeds a small population in a new envrionment. This is essentially a “founders” effect. After establishing their new home, the new population doesn’t exchange genetic information with the original population. Instead, they begin to diverge from one another.

	‣ Think about birds that inhabit space in New Guinea.
47
Q

• Adaptive Radiation :

A

• Adaptive Radiation : A group of organisms in an area where you can get a lot of selection, which allows for organisms to adapt to the environment… by either developing more extreme parts of the traits, or staying moderate due to competition.

48
Q

Co-Speciation:

A

Co-Speciation: Two completely different species that evolve in the same way, at the same time, in response of one another.
• example: Lice adapting with Pocket Gophers, so that they can still survive the envrionments their hosts live in.

49
Q

Sympatric Speciation:

A

Speciation with Gene flow between the diverging populations

50
Q

Polyploidy:

A

More than two sets of genetic information (3n/4n, etc)
* Diploid would be 2n with 2 sets of genetic information

51
Q

Domain of Bacteria and Archea are composed of (Prokaryotes or Eukaryotes)?

A

Answer: They are both composed of Prokaryotes

52
Q

Domain of Eukarya is composed of (Eukaryotes or Prokaryote’s)?

A

Answer: Eukaryotes!

53
Q

Scientific Name: _____ + ______

A

Genus + species

Dear King Philip Came Over From Great Spain

Domain, Kingdom, Philemon, Class, Order, Family, Genus + Species,

54
Q

EndoSymbiont Theory —> Lynn Margulis (1966).

A

EndoSymbiont Theory —> Lynn Margulis (1966).

• Inside the cell, we have some sort of Symbiotic Relationship Occurring,

• Ancestral Prokaryote consumed an “Aerobic Heterotrophic Prokaryote” which became a Mitochondria, and Photosynthetic Prokaryotes which became Plastids/Chloroplasts.

Support for the EndoSymbiont Theory:
• Inner Membrane lipids of mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar to their prokaryotic counterparts.

55
Q

Symbiosis:

A

Symbiosis: Two organisms living in close association with one another.

56
Q

• Mutualism Symbiosis:

A

• Mutualism Symbiosis: Both Organisms benefit from this relationship
◦ Example: Clown Fish and a Sea Anemone

57
Q

• Parasitism Symbiosis:

A

• Parasitism Symbiosis: One Organism is benefited from the relationship, but the other organism is harmed by it.

58
Q

• Commensalism Symbiosis:

A

• Commensalism Symbiosis: One Organism benefits from the relationship, and the other organism isn’t really impacted by the relationship.

59
Q

Complex Multi-Cellular Organisms:

•

A

Multi-Cellular Organisms:

• Form True Tissues:
◦ Tissues: A collection of cells that work together to perform a specific function
‣ Only Eukaryotes can form Tissues

60
Q

• What are the Characteristics of Simple-Multicellularity? (A grouping of Eukaryotic Cells, not a whole animal):

A

• Simple-Multicellularity: Cells are hooking together, but they aren’t really working together in a coordinated manner.
◦ Poor Communication between one another, and they don’t share resources.
◦ In Contact with the Environment
◦ No Tissues.

61
Q

What are the components of Complex-Multicellularity? (Think of an actually Animal, like a Jaguar):

A

Complex-Multicellularity:
Has True Tissues
◦ Complex Multicellularity has evolved at least 6 Separate Times.
• Most Plants and Animals

62
Q

Bulk Transport:

A

Bulk Transport: Movement of Molecules through an Organism in an active circulation of fluids or Air.
• Moth Complex-Multicellular Organisms have to rely on a Bulk Transport system

63
Q

Adhesions: Cadherins and Integrins

A

A. Cadherin: are transmembrane proteins that help hold cells together (especially in Epithelial tissues).
B. Integrin: Helps bind a cell to something else (other than a cell) —> using the Extracellular Matrix.
C. Pectin: is the matrix used in plants to glue plant cells together.

64
Q

Cellular Communication in Animal and Plant Cells:

A

Cellular Communication in Animal and Plant Cells:

In animal cells, there are “Gap Junctions” which are these intercellular connections that are made up of a ring of proteins.
◦ Allow for more communication between Animal Cells

In Plant Cells, there are these holes called “Plasmodesmata” which are intercellular connections lined by extensions of the cell membrane.
◦ Allow for communication between Plant Cells

65
Q

Plant Growth & Development:

A

Plant Growth & Development:

  • Cell Division (Mitosis)
    ◦ Totipotent Cells (Meristem’s —- Which are the “Stem” cells that are capable of specializing). are capable of going through Mitosis

• Cell Expansion (Elongation)
◦ Cell Takes on water, and fills the “Vacuole” with Water — which lets them expand.

• Cell Differentiation —> Signaling Molecules
◦ Will Tell the cell wha responsibilities it will be assigned; so those cells grow into their specialities

66
Q

What are the 3 Steps of Molecular Signaling? (Which are Usually Proteins that interact with a receptor).
◦ Evolved through Single-Celled Organisms

A

Molecular Signaling: (Which are Usually Proteins that interact with a receptor).
◦ Evolved through Single-Celled Organisms

  1. Reception (Signal molecule actually receiving the signal)
  2. Transduction (Activation of the Relay Molecule — which tells the rest of the cell that a signal was recieved.
  3. Response: This Message Activates some sort of Cellular Response
67
Q

Animal Growth & Development:

A

Animal Growth & Development:

• Zygote goes through mitosis and becomes a Blastula
◦ Blastula: Hollow Ball of Cells that are linked together.

Gastrulation: Folding inwards

Gastrula: Multi-Layered Developing Animal.
◦ Results in a tube, within a tube

68
Q

Evolution of Multi-Cellularity

A

Evolution of Multi-Cellularity (In Order):

• 1). Adhesion

• 2). Complex Communication

• 3). Bulk-Transport

• 4). Coordinated Growth and Development

69
Q

Evolution of Multi-Cellularity by Year

A

• 1st Complex Multi-Cellulars (575 Million Years Ago).

		• 1st Head + Tail (560 MYO).

		• 1st Muscles + Bulk Flow (555 MYO)

		• Complex Land Plants  (400 MYO).

		• Complex Fungi on Land 375 MYO).

BI-122: Foundations Of Organismal Biology (2 decks)

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