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Endocrinology -- Freedman > Exam 1 -- Pt2 Intro to Endocrinology > Flashcards

Exam 1 -- Pt2 Intro to Endocrinology Flashcards

1
Q

What is known at “the master gland”

A

pituitary gland

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2
Q

What are the two distinct parts of the pituitary gland and what are they derived from?

A
  1. Anterior (adenohypophysis)–glandular, derived from mesoderm
  2. Posterior (neurophypophysis)–neural, derived from ectoderm
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3
Q

What does the adenohypophysis originate from and what does it do?

A

(=anterior pituitary gland)
the Rathke’s pouch (pharyngeal epithelium)

synthesizes and releases 6 major peptide hormones

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4
Q

What does the neurohypophysis originate from and what does it do?

A

(=post. pituitary gland)
is a neural tissue outgrowth from the hypothalamus

stores and secretes 2 hormones that are synthesized in the hypothalamus

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5
Q

What is the pars intermedia and what does it do?

A

boundary b/w the ante. and post. lobes of the pituitary

synthesizes and secretes melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)

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6
Q

Where does the Pituitary gland lay?

A

in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone

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7
Q

What gland does the hypothalamus control almost all secretion of?

A

almost all pituitary secretion, either hormonally (ant. pit.) or neurally (post. pit.)

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8
Q

What secretions form the hypothalamus controls the secretion of the anterior pituitary gland?

A

hypothalamic releasing and inhibitory hormones (neuropeptides)

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9
Q

How do the hormones from the hypothalamus reach the anterior pituitary?

A

via the Hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system (HHPS) –> hypothalamus has specialized neurons that secrete releasing and inhibitory hormones (neuropeptides) into median eminence –> then picked up an delivered to Ant. Pit. by HHPS

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10
Q

What are the Hypothalamic peptides (hormones)?

A
    1. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
      1. Corticotropic-releasing hormone (CRH)
      2. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
      3. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
      4. Prolactin inhibitory hormone (PIH)*
  1. Growth hormone inhibitory hormone
  2. Ghrelin
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11
Q

What does Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) stimulate?

A

thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

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12
Q

What does Corticotropic-releasing hormone (CRH) stimulate?

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

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13
Q

What two hormones stimulate Growth Hormone (GH)?

A

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and Ghrelin

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14
Q

What inhibits Growth Hormone?

A

Growth Hormone inhibitory hormone (aka somatostatin)

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15
Q

What does Gonadotropic-releasing hromone (GnRH) stimulate?

A

BOTH leutinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

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16
Q

Which is the only hypothalamic peptide (hormone) that is under ONLY inhibition?

A

Prolactin inhibitory hormone (PIH)–dopamine, which inhibits prolactin

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17
Q

If you transplanted the pituitary to a distant site of the body, what would happen to secretion rates of the anterior pituitary hormones—which hormones would be increased?

A

prolactin (b/c the inhibition of it isn’t reached as easily)

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18
Q

If you transplanted the pituitary to a distant site of the body, what would happen to secretion rates of the anterior pituitary hormones—which hormones would be decreased?

A

ones that have stimulatory effect

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19
Q

If you transplanted the pituitary to a distant site of the body, what would happen to secretion rates of the anterior pituitary hormones—which hormones would bu unchanged?

A

Growth hormone b/c it is controlled by both stimulation and inhibitory activity

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20
Q

What are the 6 hormones produced and released by the Anterior Pituitary gland?

A
  1. GH (aka somatotropin)
  2. TSH
  3. Adenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  4. Prolactin
  5. FSH
  6. LH
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21
Q

What two hormones are released by the posterior pituitary gland?

A
  1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) also called vasopressin
  2. oxytocin
    (both produced in hypothalamus)
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22
Q

What is the single most important hormone to normal growth to adult stature?

A

Growth Hormone (Somatotropin)– secreted throughout life by Ant. Pit.

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23
Q

What does the growth hormone stimulate?

A
  • protein synthesis
  • cell multiplication
  • cell differentiation
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24
Q

T/F. Growth hormone exerts its effect only indirectly, just like all other AP hormones do.

A

False. GH exerts its effects directly OR indirectly (yes, all other AP hormone act indirectly, by stimulating target glands)

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25
Q

What synthesizes growth hormone? About how many cells of AP do this?

A

Somatotropes; 30-40% of AP cells

acidophilic

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26
Q

What metabolic effects does GH have?

A
  • increases rate of protein synthesis
  • decreases catabolism of amino acids and proteins
  • enhances fat utilization for energy (E)
  • decreases CHO utilization (carbs)
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27
Q

By the GH decreasing catabolism of A.A.s and proteins, how are proteins spared probably?

A

by increasing FA and therefore spare protein for energy (E) use

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28
Q

What does the GH do with fatty acids, where are they moved to/from

A
  • increases mobilization of FA from adipose tissue
  • increases FFA in blood
  • increases use of FA for energy
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29
Q

T/F. Growth hormone with decrease use of FA for energy and will incrase rate of glucose/carbs (CHO) utilization?

A

False!! GH with INCREASE use of FA, and with DECREASE use of glucose/carbs

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30
Q

What occurs if there is GH in excess? What organ is involved?

A

there will be a ketogenic effect of the excess GH; acetoacaetic acid formation by liver (fatty liver)

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31
Q

What occurs as GH decreases CHO (carb) utilization?

A
  • decreases glucose uptake in tissues (fat and skeletal muscle)
  • increases glucose production by liver (help maintain blood glucose)
  • increase insulin secretion
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32
Q

What hormones help to maintain blood glucose levels by increasing them?

A
  • GH
  • cortisol
  • glucagon
  • epinephrine
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33
Q

T/F. By GH decreasing use of CHO (carbs), and therefore decreasing glucose uptake into tissues, increasing glucose made by liver, and increasing insulin, will induce “insulin resistance”.

A

True

  • GH attenuates (reduces effect of) of insulin
  • GH may have anti-insulin activity
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34
Q

What is Metabolic Syndrome? What occurs?

A

(a cluster of conditions that occur together, increasing your risk of heart disease, stroke and type 2 diabetes)

  • insulin resistance
  • hypertension
  • cholesterol abnorms
  • increase clotting risk
  • inflammation
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35
Q

What is an example of GH having a direct effect? What about an indirect effect?

A

Direct– on fat (to use it up)

Indirect– stimulates liver to release IGF-1 and increase bone size

(IGF-1 = insluin-like growth factor-1)

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36
Q

What effect does Ghrelin have on GH?

A

stimulates GH

main source from gut

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37
Q

What effect does somatostatin (SS) released from the hypothalamus have of GH?

A

inhibitory effect

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38
Q

What effect does IGF-1 released by the liver have on GH?

A

inhibitory effect

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39
Q

What does GHRH have on GH? What is GHRH released by?

A

stimulatory effect; GHRH is released by hypothalamus

GHRH = growth-hormone releasing hormone

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40
Q

What is GH most obvious effect on the body? How does it accomplish this?

A

to increase growth of skeletal frame (stimulate cartilage and bone growth)
- done indirectly by somatomedins, like IGF-1 released by liver

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41
Q

At a cellular level, what type of mechanisms take place as GH indirectly stimulates growth of skeletal frame?

A
  • increase deposition of protein by chondrocytic and osteogenic cells
  • increase mitosis of these cells
  • converts chondrocytes to osteogenic cells
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42
Q

What occurs in long bones under simulation by GH?

A
  • grow in length
  • deposit cartilage at epiphysis and gets converted to new bone (elongates shaft_
  • epiphyseal cartilage will be used up and eventually limits elongation of long bones
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43
Q

What occurs in the bone periosteum when stimulated by GH?

A

osteoblasts deposit new bone on surface of old bone

- and at same time osteoclasts remove all bone

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44
Q

If the rate of deposition is greater than rate of resorption what occurs? What disorder can this cause?

A

thickeness of bone increases and Acromegaly can result

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45
Q

What are somatomedins? What is an example of one? Why is this important to GH?

A

small proteins produced primarily by liver; like insulin-like growth factors (IGF-1); how GH exerts much of its effects on increase in bone size

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46
Q

What is the most important somatomedins? What effect does it have on GH? What group of people lack this?

A

somatomedin C (IGF-1)

  • prolongs effects of GH (x60)
  • Pymies of Africa–therefore adults rarely exceed 4’11’’
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47
Q

Overall, list some things that stimulate GH secretion.

A
  • decrease blood glucose
  • decrease FFA
  • increase arginine
  • starvation/fasting
  • trauma/stress/excitement
  • exercise
  • testosterone/estorgen
  • Deep sleep (stage III,IV Non-REM)***
  • GHRH*
  • Ghrelin*
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48
Q

Overall, list some things that inhibit GH secretion.

A
  • increase blood glucose
  • increase blood FFA
  • aging
  • obesity
  • somatostatin
  • exogenous GH
  • somatomedins (like IGF-1)
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49
Q

How is the regulation of GH secretion controlled?

A
  • hypothalamus

- Ghrelin from gut

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50
Q

How does the hypothalamus control the secretion of GH?

A
  • GHRH stimulates GH

- somatostatin inhibits GH

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51
Q

How does Ghrelin have an effect on GH secretion?

A

released primarily by GI tract

  • cells in AP have “growth hormone secretagoue receptor” (GHS-R) that when activate release GH
  • Ghrelin –> stimulates hunger and promotes feeding behavior
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52
Q

What type of pattern is GH secreted in?

A

pulsatile pattern; burst ~ every 2 hrs

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53
Q

What time does the largest burst of GH occur?*

A

largest burst of GH occurs within 1 hour of onset of sleep

- during NREM stage III and IV

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54
Q

Desribe the secretion stages GH has throughout life.

A
  • Birth to childhood–> increases steadily
  • During childhood/puberty –> stable
  • During puberty –> largest burst
  • After puberty and with increase age –> gradually decreases
  • Old age (senescence) –> secretion rates and pulsatility decrease to lowest levels
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55
Q

During puberty, GH is induced by what?

A
  • in females –> estorogen
  • in males –> testosterone
  • ass. with “growth spurt”
56
Q

What occurs if there is a deficiency of GH in children?

A
  • failure to grow, short stature
  • mild obesity
  • delayed puberty
  • could be due to defects at any level in hypothalamus
57
Q

What occurs in children that have excess GH?

A

gigantism

recall: this is before puberty

58
Q

What occurs in adults with increase GH?

A

Acromegaly

recall: this is after puberty

59
Q

How is excess GH treated?

A

with somatotatin analogs, like octreotide

60
Q

T/F. Overall, GH enhances body protein, uses up fat stores, and conserves carbs.

A

True

61
Q

What do these abbreviations mean:

  1. TSH
  2. FSH
  3. LH
  4. HCG
A
  1. Thyroid stimulating hormone
  2. Follicle stimulating hormone
  3. Luteinizing hormone
  4. Human chorionic gonadotropin (placenta)
62
Q

What do TSH, FSH, LH, and HCG all have in common?

A
  • two noncovalently linked subunits (alpha and beta)
  • alpha = identical in all
  • beta = unique to each
63
Q

What are two other names for Thyroid Stimulating Hormone?

A

Thyrotropic and Glycoprotein

64
Q

What secretes TSH?

A

thyrotropes cells; ~5% all AP cells

65
Q

What type of effect does TSH have? (4)

A
  • increase proteolysis of stored thyroglobulin
  • increase activity of iodine pump
  • increase iodination of tyrosine
  • increase size, number, and secretory activity of thyroid cells
66
Q

The increase protelysis of stored thyroglobulin, by TSH, causes release of what?

A

T3 and T4 within 30 minutes

thyroglobulin = precursor for T3 and T4

67
Q

As TSH increase activity of iodide pump, what occurs?

A

increase iodine trapping in glandular cells (can develop goiter)

68
Q

As TSH increases iodination of tyrosine, the formation of what is increased?

A

increase formation of T3 and T4

69
Q

What mechanism does TSH utilize?

A

adenylyl cylcase- cAMP mechanism

70
Q

What inhibits TSH? (2)

A
  • T3 and 4

- SNS

71
Q

What stimulates TSH?

A
  • TRH (Thyroid release hormone)

- cold

72
Q

How are the effects of the TSH mediated?

A

hypothalamus

73
Q

What does ACTH stand for?

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

74
Q

What does ACTH stimulate secretion of? via what mechanism?

A
  • cortisol and adrenal androgens from the adrenal cortex

via adenylyl cyclase-cAMP mechanism

75
Q

Recall: What does the adrenal cortex release? What does the adrenal medualla release? Where are they derived from?

A

cortex–> cortisol and adrenal androgens; mesoderm

medulla –> NE/Epi; ectoderm

76
Q

What secretes ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)?

A

corticotropes cells in AP

77
Q

What stimulates ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)?

A
  • hypothalamic Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)

- any physical or mental stress (i.e. pain)

78
Q

What inhibits ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)? What type of feedback loop is this?

A

cortisol, at level of pituitary and hypothalamus; negative feedback loop

79
Q

What is ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) also synthesized and secreted with?

A
  • MSH (melanocyte-szltimulating hormone)
  • Lipoptropic
  • Endorphin
    (POMC family = Pro-opiomelanocortin)
80
Q

What do lactotropes cells synthesize?

A

Prolactin

81
Q

What effect does hypothalamic dopamine have on prolactin?

A

aka prolactin inhibitory hormone; therefore inhibits prolactin

82
Q

What does prolactin stimulate?

A

milk secretion and production

83
Q

What does prolactin inhibit?

A

ovulation; inhibits synthesis and release of GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)

84
Q

When prolactin is in excess, what are three effects?

A
  • destruction of hypothalamus or prolactinomas
  • Galactorrhea (persistent secretion of milk)
  • infertility (inhibition of GnRH)
85
Q

T/F. Prolactin depresses aspects of immune response.

A

False, prolactin ENHANCES aspects of immune response

86
Q

What do gonadotropic cells release?

A

FSH and LH (In AP)

87
Q

FSH and LH is a glycoprotein with two subunits. What are those subunits and are they similar?

A

alpha – identical in both

beta – unique

88
Q

What hormone causes ovulation?

A

LH

89
Q

What are the combined functions of FSH and LH? (4)

A
  • stimulate development of ovarian follicles
  • regulates spermatogenesis in testes
  • causes ovulation (LH) and formation of corpus luteum
  • stimulates production of estrogen/progesterone in female and testosterone in males
90
Q

What mechanism does FSH and LH function by?

A

adenyly cyclase- cAMP mechanism (recall it is 2nd MC messenger system)

91
Q

Describe the complexes Activin and Inhibin.

A

closely related protein complexes with opposite effects

- both belong to TGF-beta protein superfamily

92
Q

Where are the dimers, Activin and Inhibin produced?

A

gonads, pituitary, placenta, and other organs

93
Q

Activin is ____ subunits

Inhibin is ____ subunits

A

Activin – is two beta subunits

Inhibin – is one beta and one alpha subunit

94
Q

What does Activin have an effect on?

A

it enhances FSH synthesis and secretion

95
Q

What does Inhibin have an effect on?

A

it inhibits FSH synthesis and secretion

96
Q

What helps regulated the menstrual cycle and has a role in cell proliferation, apoptosis, metabolism, homeostasis, immune response, and wound repair?

A

Activin –> which enhances FSH synthesis and secretion

97
Q

How man hormones does the posterior pituitary gland secrete? Which ones?

A

two:

  1. ADH (antidiuretic hormone) aka vasopressin
  2. Oxytocin
98
Q

What nuclei is the primary source of ADH?

A

supraoptic nuclei

99
Q

What nuclei is the primary source of oxytocin?

A

paraventricular nuclei

100
Q

Both ADH and oxytocin are ______ synthesized in _________ and secreted from nerve terminals in the _____ ____.

A

neuropeptides; synthesized in hypothalamic neurons; secreted from posterior pituitary

101
Q

T/F. Both the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei can secrete both ADH and oxytocin.

A

True (the just secrete primarily one over the other)

102
Q

T/F. ADH and oxytocin are made up of 9 amino acids of which 7 are identical.

A

true (they are very similar)

103
Q

What does oxytocin produce and stimulate?

A
  • produces milk “letdown” from lactating breast

- stimulates uterine contraction

104
Q

Oxytocin stimulates uterine contraction when it is released in response to what? (2)

A
  • dilation of cervix (parturition)

- orgasm

105
Q

What is used to induce labor and reduce postpartum bleeding?

A

oxytocin

106
Q

What inhibits oxytocin?

A

opioids (endorphins)

107
Q

What effects does oxytocin have on the brain?

A
  • relaxation, fearlessness, bonding, contentment

- activated daily by closeness and touch

108
Q

What causes oxytocin to be released and therefore produce milk “letdown” form lactating breast?

A
  • to suckling or conditioned responses (sight, sound, or smell of infant)
  • stimulates contraction of myoepithelial cells lining milk ducts
109
Q

What is know as the “trust hormone”

A

oxytocin

110
Q

What produces melatonin?

A

the pineal gland (neural tissue)

111
Q

What happens to melatonin as we age?

A

decreases

112
Q

What type of sleep does melatonin enhance?

A

slow wave sleep

113
Q

What controls cyclicity in seasonal breeders?

A

melatonin

114
Q

What does melatonin have to do with the circadian cycle?

A

it is released during it; and peaks during dark phase (middle of night)

115
Q

T/F. Melatonin enhances immune function and is a potent antioxidant.

A

True– protects against free radical damage

116
Q

T/F. Melatonin may increase risk of cancer and heart disease.

A

False, it reduces the risk, silly!

117
Q

T/F. Melatonin has no known toxicity.

A

true :)

118
Q

What 5 important hormones does the liver synthesize and secrete?

A
  1. insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1)
  2. Angiotensinogen
  3. Thrombopoietin
  4. Hepcidin
  5. Betatrophin
119
Q

What hormone does IGF-1 secreted from the liver mediate the effects of?

A

of growth hormone

120
Q

What is IGF-1 also called?

A

IGF-1 = insulin-like growth factor -1

aka somatomedin C

121
Q

What is angiotensinogen a precursor for? Where is it sythesized and secreted from?

A

angiotensin I and II

liver

122
Q

Where is Thrombopoietin produced besides the liver? What does it stimulate?

A

kidney

stimulates production of platelets

123
Q

What is the key regulator of entry of iron into cells? Where is is synthesized and produced?

A

Hepcidin

liver

124
Q

Where is betatrophin also produced besides the liver? What does it promote?

A

adipose tissue

promotes pancreatic beta cell proliferation (therefore enhances insulin production)

125
Q

How does damage to the liver effect steroid hormone levels?

A

decreases steroid hormone levels, b/c steroid hormones are conjugated mainly by the liver and excreted in the bile

126
Q

What is the major way steroid hormones are removed?

A

by the liver; they are conjugated there and excreted in bile

127
Q

What stimulatory modulation does the NS have on the endocrine system?

A

humoral, hormonal, and neural

128
Q

What inhibitory modulation does the NS have on the endocrine system?

A

feedback inhibition

129
Q

Can subluxations/ nerve interference have detrimental effect on hormones?

A

yes, because NS gives added dimension of control/safeguard to endocrine system

130
Q

What is the MC cause of death and disability in young people?

A

Traumatic brain injury (TBI)

131
Q

What gland suffers dysfunction following a TBI (Traumatic Brain Injury)?

A

pituitary; due to placement in sella tucica of sphenoid bone

132
Q

What percentage of TBI’s cause pituitary dysfunction?

A

25-40% (common and it is poorly recognized)

133
Q

Pituitary dysfunction due to a TBI will most commonly cause a deficiency in what hormones?

A

GH and FSH/LH

134
Q

What is a GH deficiency associated with?

A

inability to concentrate, memory problems, anxiety, and fatigue

135
Q

What is an LH/FSH deficiency associated with?

A

hypogonadism (b/c gonads are not properly stimulated)

136
Q

Pituitary dysfunction due to a TBI can cause what disorder?

A

Central diabetes insipidus–> which is a lack of ADH (aka vasopressin)

Endocrinology -- Freedman (14 decks)

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