exam 1 study guide Flashcards
hypothesis
basically an unsupported theory
null hypothesis
what needs to happen for the hypothesis to be wrong
how to use learning outcome
he writes out exactly what he wants you to know so study that (on the slides). EVERYTHING is designed around it. Take a list of these and turn them into a study guide. List = surface level knowledge, apply/analyze = more in-depth
biology def
study of life
scientific process
hypothesis, design experiment, collect data, collect results, and draw conclusions. ANY of these steps can be repeated with new info
characteristics of life
- CELLS- all organisms are made up of membrane-bound cell
- REPLICATION- has to be able to replicate
- INFORMATION- process hereditary info as well as info from the environment
- ENERGY- all organisms require energy
- EVOLUTION- pops of organisms are continually evolving
Cell theory
organisms are made of cells that are highly organized, bound by plasma, chemicals in solution.
What does the cell theory state?
- all organisms are made of cells
- all cells come from existing cells
Pastuer experiment
he used a nutrient broth in flask. He sterilized it, and then new cells were found in the broth. Then, he used a swan-neck flask and did the same, no new cells except in swan neck. Disproved spontaneous generation
Chromosome theory of inheritance
- hereditary info is encoded in genes
- genes are units located on chromosome
- DNA is hereditary material
- genes are segments of DNA that code for cell products
What provides energy to cells?
ATP, adenosine triphosphate
the central dogma of biology
the flow of info DNA—-> RNA—–> PROTEIN
Evolution
a change in the characteristics of a population or organisms over time (population = a group of same species)
Natural selection
survival of the fittest, if an individual has a trait that benefits the production of more babies, then that trait will become more common
phylogeny/phylogenetic tree
the tree of life and how everything is related. Based mostly on DNA and how similar organism DNA is. The more recent the more related
life separated into three groups
Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
Structure affects _____
Function
strongest type of bonds in bio
covalent bonds (shared)
what determines sharing of electrons?
electronegativity (right and up)
in this class, what has the strong electronegativity pull?
Oxygen
three types of bonds in biology
covalent (shared <0.5 EN difference), polar covalent (partial charge >0.5 EN difference), ionic bond (fully charged)
what forms polar covalent bonds in biology?
Nitrogen and oxygen, N or O
hydrogen bonds and who can form them
an attraction between a hydrogen atom and a weak negative charge. (only O and N can do this)
polar covalent bonding molecules _________ in water due to ______
dissolve in water due to hydrogen bonding
Cohesion
attraction between water molecules (like being attracted to like)
Adhesion
attraction of water molecules to other molecules (like attracted to different)
what two factors do water have that make it hard to heat up?
Water has a high heat capacity and high heat of vaporization due to the abundance of hydrogen bonds
what is an acid in biology?
proton donor
What is a base in biology
proton acceptor or gives up a OH-
what is pH measured in?
-log[H+]
The fewer protons in the solution, the ______ pH it has
higher
a ________ minimizes changes in pH. They compensate for inequalities in pH
Buffer
examples of buffer in our body
Carbonic acid
types of potential energy and definitions
chemical energy- energy stored in bonds the more bonds, the more chemical energy
types of kinetic energy and definitions
Thermal energy- energy of molecular motion.
Entropy
Amount of disorder; chaos level. The more stuff moving around, the greater the entropy
what two factors are the biggest drivers of biochemical reactions?
potential energy and entropy
Organic molecules are
any molecules that include carbon and hydrogen
four classes of macromolecules
Proteins, Nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.
polymer
large molecules made up of many repeating units that are similar
what do we call linking two monomers together?
condensation (dehydration) reaction: forms a new bond and loses a water molecule. Costs energy
all 6 functions of protiens
catalysis, defense, movement, structure signaling, and transport
what are reactants called in catalyst reactions? how do they react?
substrates, the bind to active sites to react
Carbonyl group
think carbonoxylic acid, but just O double bonded to C
hydroxyl group
alcohol functional group
link name of nucleotides
phosphodiester bond
what is a monomer of nucleic acids?
nucleotide
three components of a nucleotide
phosphate group, a 5-carbon sugar (number one starts on the right; 1 prime 1’, 2 prime 2’), and a nitrogenous base.
where are the phospate group and nitrogenous base connected to the 5 carbon sugar?
1 prime (base) and 5 prime (phosphate group)
what is the difference between ribose and deoxribose?
RNA (ribose) has a hydroxyl group on the 2 prime carbon, DNA has 1 less hydroxyl group
what are the five nitrogenous bases?
Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), adenine (A), and Uracil (U) or Thymine (T). Remember these have a LOT of nitrogens
two classes of nitrogenous bases and what they mean
purines = two rings, pyrimidines = 1 ring
condensation reaction
whenever we remove a water and make a bond, its this (dehydration reaction)
what is the backbone of DNA and RNA called? How is it drawn?
The sugar-phosphate backbone. The linkage is 5 prime and the 3 prime
what is ATP and why is it so high energy?
Adenosine triphosphate, and because negatively charged oxygens are very close to each other which they do not like.
with the secondary structure of DNA there must be always one _____ and one _____. What bonds holds these structures together?
purine (double ring) and one pyrimidine (single ring), hydrogen bonds
finish the pairing
Gaunine and ________ (G and ___) (____ hydrogen bonds)
_______ and thymine (____ and T) (___ hydrogen bonds)
Guanine and Cytosine ( G and C) (3 H bonds)
Adenine and Thymine ( A and T) (2 H bonds)
Chargaffs rule
A = T ; G = C
Instead of thymine, RNA uses
uracil
what is the secondary structure of RNA and what does it interact with?
Hairpins and interacts with itself
What is the difference between RNA and DNA
RNA has a 2 prime OH group
Rna functions and examples (2)
Information storage ( mRNA and tRNA) and Catalyzing (ribozymes)
what is the prefered source of fuel for all life?
Glucose
molecular formula for carbohydrates
(CH2O)n, a lot more C’s and O’s and twice the H’s. SAME NUMBER OF O’s AND C’s
if there is a CO double bond on the OUTSIDE, a Carbohydrate is called
Aldose (aldose: outside)
if there is a CO double bond on the INSIDE, a Carbohydrate is called
a ketose
what do you call a carb with 3, 5, or 6 carbon atoms?
triose, pentose, and hexose
ring structure contain a _______ carbon.
anomeric
difference between alpha and beta glucose
alpha = carbon in line with O, beta = carbon not in line with O
glycosidic linkage and how you name
the linkage for two glucose. name by using alpha or beta for the first glucose, then list the carbons that are linked (Ex Alpha-1,4 glycosidic linkage or beta-1, 4glycosidic linkage)
what polysaccharide is used for energy storage un plants? Animals? what are they linked by?
Starch ; Glycogen ; alpha 1, 4
study bio document with structures
ok
one saccaride = _____, two saccarides = ____, and many more saccarides = ____.
- monosaccharide, 2. disaccharide, 3. Polysaccharide
when numbering carbons, _____
start from the carbon after the oxygen
structure polysaccharides include _____ in plants with _____ linkage. In fungi, _____ and in bacteria, ____.
cellulose, beta 1,4 ; Chitin, peptidoglycan
NOTE: in cellulose and in other polysaccarides , the linkages of every other glucose are _______ so count accordingly
FLIPPED
In general, structural carbs are strong because ____
they are difficult to hydrolize
what are glycoprotiens? Glycolipids?
- carbs attached to protiens 2. carbs attached to lipids. Both of these give your bodies cell-cell recognition and signaling
Why are Carbs so good for energy storage?
they have a lot of nonpalor bonds (C-C and C-H)
Enzymes that break down polysaccarides to release glucose _______ (plants) and ______ (animals)
Phosphorylase (for glycogen), amylase (for starch)
Nonpolar bonds have _____ energy and polar bonds have less
higher energy and less energy needed to rip apart bond
lipids dont have monomers, they are just ______
hydrocarbons
types of structures in lipids (3) with functions
- Steriods-signaling 2. Fats-storage 3. phospholipids- membrane struture
what makes a steriod a steriod structurally? Give some examples of steriods.
four ring structure that looks like a piece from tetris [] Examples include cholesterol and
[] [] hormones
[]
What are fats stored as?
triglycerides + 3 fatty acids
what is a fatty acid?
a fat part with an acid on the end of it
what is a saturated fatty acid? what is unsaturated?
a fat that has the maximum number of H attached to it (straight). Unsaturated = one or more double bonds with a curved structure
oils are ______ butters are ______
unsaturated, saturated
phospholipids have two parts…..
Head (glycerol +phosphate + charged molecule) and a Tail (two carbon chains)
Amphipathic:
describes phospholipids, has both a region that likes water and disliked water
What do you call a bead structure that is formed from lipids being in water?
Micelle
Phospholipids are different from oils as they have two chains, so they form sheets called ______ when in water
bilayers
Protein polymer= ___, monomer = ____ and they are linked by ____
polypeptides , amino acids, peptide bonds
the peptide bond is between the ______ and the _____ group of another amino acid
caboxyl and amino
difference between primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures
primary = how monomers connect; the unique structure
secondary = the shape those connect monomers make; formed by hydrogen bonds (aplha and beta)
tertairy = the overall three dimensional shape made; think disulfide bonds
quaternary = the shape made by the combination of many tertiaries.
denaturants of protiens
heat, some salts, pH extremes
what interactions happen on the tertiary level with proteins?
disulfide bonds, hydrogen bonds, ionic interactions, hydrophobic interactions
protiens have ________ H_______ and _______ S________ in their secondary structures
alpha helixes, beta sheets
in proteins, everything rotates around the ______ bonds
peptides
lipid bilayers are _______
selectively permeable
what things are not permeable through cell membrane? what moves easily?
Ions have a hard time (very polar molecules), oxygen, CO2, and N2 move easily (small and nonpolar)
why cant ions cross membranes?
because they are attracted the the partial negatives of water, therefore become a larger polar molecule
what structure of the lipid bilayer is best at permeability and what is worst?
low permeability = saturated fatty acid chains (less holes)
High permeability = unsaturated fatty acid chains (more holes)
proteins and phospholipids can both be ________. As such proteins are often parts of the P bilayer
amphipathic
describe the fluid mosiac model
the modern model of cell membrane, the membrane ripples, and flows and moves. proteins dot the surface. There are also carbohydrate (glycoprotiens)
what is a peripheral membrane protein? What is a transmembrane protein?
peripheral = float on the surface
transmembrane = make tunnels THROUGH the membrane
what do the protiens on and through the cell membrane do?
they undergo facilitated diffusion where they move ions and hard to diffuse molecules out of the cell
___________ allow passage of specific ions.. They keep the _______ going in things like muscle cells and the flow is also controlled by these gradients
ion channels, electrochemical gradient
types of channels and how they open (3)
ion channel; change in charge.
Gated channel; binding of a particular substance or change in charge
active transport requires _____
ATP
What makes up a fat?
Glycerol and fatty acid
