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cells and phys > exam 1 (notes version) > Flashcards

exam 1 (notes version) Flashcards

1
Q

cells

A

compartments of all living things

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2
Q

1665

A

Hooke looks at bark and coins the term “cell” (cell means little room)

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3
Q

1673

A

Leeuwenhoek looks at different organisms and finds different looking cells

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4
Q

cell theory has two parts

A

o Cells are composed of cells

o And all cells come from preexisting cells

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5
Q

in cell theory all cells came from

A

a primitive cell

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6
Q

• There are three domains of cells

A

o Bacteria
o Achaea
o Eukarya

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7
Q

shapes of cells vary relating to

A

function

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8
Q

shared universal characteristics of cells

A
  1. All cells enclosed by a membrane
  2. Store genetic information in DNA
  3. Use that DNA as a template
  4. Used as transcription
  5. Used genetic info to protein
  6. Use proteins as catalysts (enzymes)
  7. 4 macromolecules (proteins, carbs, lipids, nucleic acids)
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9
Q

what experiment is responsible for chemical evolution?

A

• Miller-Urey experiment

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10
Q

where did cells come from?

A
  • Small to large molecule
  • Light and head energy used
  • Small molecule (hydrogen, methane, ammonia) heated and used light and created small molecules
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11
Q

what was the first life form?

A

was a self replicating RNA (a ribozyme) and had catalytic ability

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12
Q

when did the first cell come about?

A

3.5 – 4 billion years ago (and after the ribozyme) most likely a ribosome surrounded by a membrane

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13
Q

sections of cell biology

A
  • Cytology
  • Biochemistry
  • Genetics
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14
Q

cytology

A
  • Describes cell structure

* Relies on microscopy and staining techniques

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15
Q

biochemistry

A
  • Describes chemistry of cellular functions
  • Pathways of synthesis and breakdown of compounds
  • Energy generations and usage
  • Enzyme catalysis
  • Relies on many techniques
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16
Q

genetics

A

• Describes the flow of information in the cell
• Central Dogma
o DNA transcribed to RNA and RNA is translated to protein and protein creates traits (gene expression)
o All cells contain the entire genome of DNA
o Different cell types express different sets of genes
 Some genes are transcribed continually = constitutive expression (house keeping)
o Some genes are transcribed when the cell has a need for a specific protein
 Regulated expression – specific need for specific genes

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17
Q

central dogma

A

DNA transcribed to RNA and RNA is translated to protein and protein creates traits (gene expression)

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18
Q

elements

A

substance that cannot be broken down or converted into other substances

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19
Q

atoms

A

smallest particle of an element

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20
Q

molecule

A

combination of atoms

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21
Q

polymer

A

combination od repeating monomer units. A molecule you make from repeating monomer units

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22
Q

critical elements

A

– carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

o Makes up 96.5% of living organisms

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23
Q

oxygen

A

= highly electronegative O>N>C ~H

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24
Q

dna is

A

polar molecule

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25
Q

amphipathic

A

• Polar + nonpolar areas

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26
Q

• Macromolecules of living organisms

A

o Proteins
o Carbohydrates
o Lipids
o Nucleic Acids

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27
Q

• Polymerization

A

o Monomers and polymers
o Proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids (not lipids)
Atoms

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28
Q

• Atomic weight (mass number)

A

protons + #neutrons

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29
Q

atomic number

A

protons

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30
Q

• Neutral atoms =

A

protons = #electrons

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31
Q

viruses

A
  • Technically not alive – can’t replicate themselves
  • Obligate intracellular parasites
  • Composed of genetic material (DNA (RNA)) and a capsule
  • Gain entry into cells by binding to protein receptors
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32
Q

bacteria

A
  • Single celled

* Prokaryotes – no nucleus

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33
Q

archae

A
  • Single celled
  • Prokaryotes – no nucleus
  • Extreme environments – EX: thermophiles, halophiles etc
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34
Q

Eukaryotes

A 
•	Multi-cell 
•	Membrane bound nucleus 
•	Have unique cell features 
1.	Compartmentalization 
2.	Specialization
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35
Q

compartmentalization

A

a. Protection of genetic information

b. Increased surface area of membrane

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36
Q

specialization

A

a. Organelles – membrane bound intracellular structures
b. Specialized for a particular function
c. Includes nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts (plants) endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, secretary vesicles

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37
Q

Cellular Specialization

A

• Most eukaryotic cells are specialized

cells to tissue to organs

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38
Q

Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

A

• Bacteria, archae, the cell wall sometimes surrounds the membrane – protection because it’s susceptible to the environment

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39
Q

Cellular Specialization

A

• Cell to cell connections
o Plant cells are connected to each other with cytoplasmic bridges  plasmodesma = which helps pass things back and forth between the cell wall

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40
Q

cell to cell connections

A

• Animal cells have different types of connections

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41
Q

gap junctions

A

like a tunnel. Allows passage between cells

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42
Q

tight junctions

A

prevents passage between cells “sewn shut”

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43
Q

o Adherin Junctions

A

connect plasma membrane to microfilament of cytoplasm

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44
Q

o Desmosomes

A

– connects plasma membrane to intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton

45
Q

cytoplasm

A

cytosol + cytoskeleton

46
Q

cell walls in plants

A

• Cell wall can be primary (around the cell)
• Plant cells have rigid cell walls
• In complex plants, you have secondary cell walls
o Around tissue
o Lignin (wood)
• The more layers of the wall the more rigid it is, the more rough it is
• Cytoplasm = cytosol + cytoskeleton
• Cytosol is permeated by 3D array called cytoskeleton

47
Q

domain differences

A
  1. Presents/absence of nucleus
  2. Unique Organization of DNA
  3. Unique Expression of DNA
  4. Cytoskeleton
  5. Exocytosis and Endocytosis
  6. Internal Membranes
48
Q
  1. Presents/absence of nucleus
A

• Eukaryotic cells contain membrane bound nucleus

49
Q
  1. Unique Organization of DNA
A

• Bacterial DNA – circular with few associated proteins
• Archael DNA – circular with moderate amounts of protein
• Eukaryotic DNA – multiple, linear, many associated proteins called histones
• Archael have few histones. Moderate amounts of protein.
o Also have circular chromosomes

50
Q
  1. Unique Expression of DNA
A

• Replication/synthesis (during cell division)

51
Q

cytoskeleton

A 
•	Cell Shape, movement, division
•	Proteinaceous 
o	Microtubules
o	Microfilaments
o	Intermediate filaments
52
Q
  1. Exocytosis and Endocytosis
A
  • Only eukaryotes
  • Moves things in and out of cell
  • Membrane fusion events
  • Endo = in and Exo = release
53
Q

internal membranes

A

• Most bacteria, archae don’t contain internal membranes
• Cellular functions occur at the plasma membrane in cytoplasm
• Exception – cyanobacteria
o Photosynthetic
o Extensive internal membrane

54
Q

organelles

A

little organs, membrane bound and highly specialized

55
Q

mitochondria

A

site of aerobic respiration and relatively large

56
Q

chloroplasts

A

relatively large, site of photosynthesis

57
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A 
•	Rough ER – associated with ribosomes
o	Protein synthesis 
•	Smooth ER – no ribosomes
o	Synthesis of lipids and steroids
o	Drug detoxification
58
Q

Golgi Apparatus (Golgi complex)

A

o Stack of flattened sacs and vesicles
o Processing/packaging secretory proteins
o Synthesize of complex polysaccharides
o Compounds in vesicles bud off of trans face  other parts of cell

59
Q

The Lysosome

A

• Stores enzyme (acid hydrolases) for digesting/degrading

60
Q

Peroxisome

A

• Generate and degrade hydrogen peroxide (h20)
o Highly toxic
o Converted to H20 and O2 by catalase
o Role in oxygen regulation? Aging?
• Detoxify methanol, ethanol, formaldehyde
• Degrade unusual substances (d-amino acids)
• Especially prominent in liver and kidney

61
Q

Vacuole

A
  • Plant organelle

* Maintains turgor pressure to prevent wilting

62
Q

function of membranes

A

o Defines boundary of cell – surround organelle

63
Q

structure of membranes

A

o Lipid bi-layer w/ associated proteins
o Amphipathic – contains hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions – both polar and non-polar
o Assembles spontaneously in an aqueous environment
 Polar regions interact with water
 Non polar regions remain protected from water

64
Q

• Phospholipids

A

o Most abundant membrane lipid

o Phosphate + glycerol (+/- small molecules) = “head”

65
Q

• Glycolipids

A

o Carbohydrate around it

o Cerebrosides and gangliosides (two groups found in nervous system)

66
Q

• Antigenic

A

glycosphingolipids on RBC’s
o EX: Tay-Sachs disease
o Lysosomal storage disease

67
Q

sterols

A

 Maintains and stabilizes membranes

 Building block of steroid hormones

68
Q

o Permeability

A

a measure of abaility to allow substances to pass through

69
Q

o Singer + Nicholson

A

 Described fluid mosaic model of the membrane
• Fluid nature of lipids
• Mosaic scattering of proteins

70
Q

o Unwin and Henderson (1975)

A

 Used bacteriorhodospin as a model (archaea spp protein pump)
 Described transmembrane segments (7)/hydrophobic; connecting hydrophilic “loops”

71
Q

lipid rafts

A

 Areas of homogeneity within a monolayer
 Especially prominent in outer monolayer
• Tend to have:
o Increased cholersterol
o Increased saturation
o Increased glycosphingolipids (glycosphingolipids are find in the membrane of the red blood cell)

72
Q

 Fluidity –

A

state of viscosity of the lipids in a membrane

73
Q

membrane fluidity

A
  • Increased temp – membrane too fluid; doesn’t hold together
  • Decreased temp – membrane begins to gel, eventually becomes solid (death of organism)
  • Transition temperature – where solid membrane becomes fluid – WE ARE HOMEOTHERMIC
74
Q

o Homeoviscous adapation

A

– ability to alter lipid composition to maintain membrane fluidity on different temperatures
o Methods
 Shorten/elongate fatty acid length
 Add/remove double bonds in fatty acids to alter saturation

75
Q

• Categories of membrane proteins

A

o Integral
 Integral monotopic – cross one monolayer
 Transmembrane – cross entire bi-layer
• Single pass – cross through one time
• Multipass – in and out of membrane and move around – looping
o Peripheral
 Weak electrostatic interactions
o Lipid Anchored
 Covalent bonds to lipids within bi-layer

76
Q

simple diffusion

A

o Direct and unaided

o Does NOT require energy

77
Q

concentration gradient

A

difference in the concentration of solutes in a solution between two regions (across a membrane)

78
Q

polarity

A

– measured by partition coefficient (oil/water)
 Non polar = increased coefficient = more permeable
 Polar = decreased coefficient = les permeable

79
Q

osmosis

A

movement of water across a semipermeable membrane

80
Q

• Facilitated Diffusion

A 
o	Similarities to simple diffusions
	Spontaneous; no energy required
	Moves down a concentration gradient [high]  [low]
o	Requires transport proteins
	Channel proteins
	Carrier proteins
81
Q

hypertonic

A

water out (cell shrivels)

82
Q

hypotonic

A

water in (cell ruptures

83
Q

isotonic

A

nothing changes

84
Q

o Active Transport

A 
	Proteins called membrane pumps
	Directional
	Movement is against a concentration gradient (up the gradient)
	[low] t [high]
	Requires energy
•	Hydrolysis of ATP (ATP  ADP+Pi)
•	Coupled movement/hydrolysis
85
Q

steps of transcription in bacteria

A
  • Initiation of Transcription (step 1)
  • Sigma binds core and binds promoter region on DNA (35 and 10 boxes common)
  • Helix Opens
  • RNA Polymerase
  • Elongation (Step 2)
  • Termination (Step 3)
86
Q

Transcription in Eukaryotes

A
  • More complex process
  • Diverse array of promoters
  • Diverse array of basal transcription factors that replace sigma
  • Genes divided into exons and introns
87
Q

• The DNA molecule

A

o Contains all the information to make all the RNA and all the proteins needed to construct a new organism

88
Q

gene

A

o Contain sequences of base pairs that encode for proteins
 One gene, one protein
o Contain sequences of base pairs that regulate expression of genes
 Turn gene “on” and gene “off”
• Induction = express gene; or increase expression
• Repression = don’t express gene; or decrease expression

89
Q

the central dogma

A

o DNA is transcribed to produce RNA
o RNA is translated to produce protein
o Protein creates traits

90
Q

there are two distinct uses for DNA

A 
o	Replication/synthesis (DNA used to make more DNA)
o	Transcription (DNA is used to make RNA)
91
Q

• Wraps around histone proteins

A

nucleosome

92
Q

dna excists as a

A

double stranded protein in the cell

93
Q

• Cells have different functions

A

o Only genes that code for proteins needed by that cell will be transcribed, only when needed

94
Q

house keeping genes

A

o Code for proteins needed by all cells, all the time (except for Y Chromosome)

95
Q

• Heterochromatin

A

tightly packed, transcriptionally inactive

96
Q

• Euchromatin

A

loosely packed, exposed nucleosomes actively transcribed

97
Q

• Global regulation of Transcription

A

getting to Euchromatin

98
Q
  1. SWI/SNF enzymes
A

a. Rearrange nucleosomes

99
Q
  1. Histone Acetylation Transferase Enzymes (HAT)
A

a. Place acetyl groups on histones
b. Removes (+ charge)  less tightly bound to (-) charge on DNA
c. Helps heterochromatin  euchromatin

100
Q
  1. Methyl Transferase Enzymes
A

a. Target CpG regions in promoters of genes

b. Place methyl groups  helps euchromatin  heterochromatin

101
Q

Gene Transcription

A

• Other regulatory proteins bind regulatory regions around gene itself
o Repressors bind to operators downstream from promoter regions
o Activators bind to enhancer region upstream from promoter regions (sometimes bend DNA)
o Can work together for fine control

102
Q

Gene Expression

A

• Regulation of Gene expression = pile one!
o Heterochromatin  euchromatin
o Repressors/operators, Activators/Enhancers
o Basal transcription factors bind to promoters
• Leads to building of very complex machinery to enhance or suppress transcription

103
Q

promoter

A

a region of DNA that initiates transcription of a gene; located upstream (100-1000bps)

104
Q

enhancer

A

a region of DNA that becomes bound with protein activators (transcription factors) to activate transcription; located upstream (50-1500 bps)

105
Q

operator

A

region of DNA that becomes bound with protein repressors (transcription factors) to inhibit transcription’; located upstream between promoter and the gene

106
Q

Control of Eukaryotic Gene Expression

A
  1. Transcriptional control is only the beginning
  2. RNA processing control
  3. RNA transport and localization control
  4. Translational control
  5. mRNA degradation control
  6. Protein activity control
107
Q

• In many diseases, the cause is the overexpression of

A

a particular gene

108
Q

• Microarrays

A

o Measures the total* amount of mRNA (transcription product) in a diseased cell and compare it to the amount of mRNA in a healthy cell
o Looks for where the two cells differ; where transcription is unregulated in diseased cell

cells and phys (4 decks)

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