Exam 1 Intro to Philosophy

Question 1

a posteriori knowledge

Answer 1

Something known as a result of an experience

Question 2

a priori knowledge

Answer 2

A something that is known prior to, or without, necessary experience

Question 3

abduction

Answer 3

making a probable conclusion from what you know
an argument that makes an appeal by inference to the best explanation

Question 4

Aesthetics

Answer 4

What is beauty?

Question 5

Contingent truth

Answer 5

is a belief that is true but might not have been true.
Contingent truths are based upon experience and necessary truths are not. Contingent truths are based on empirical knowledge.

Question 6

Correspondence test for truth

Answer 6

Agreement between a proposition and an actual state of affairs

Question 7

Epistemology

Answer 7

What is Reasonable?

Question 8

Fallacy

Answer 8

An error in reasoning

Question 9

Logic

Answer 9

The study of rules of valid inference and ‘rational argument’. In general, a sense of order.

Question 10

Metaphysics

Answer 10

What is Real?

Question 11

Metaphysics

Answer 11

What is Real?

Question 12

Philosophy

Answer 12

Is nothing less than taking a carefully critical and questioning view of the world

Is nothing more than thinking hard about the universe

Question 13

Premise

Answer 13

Assertion, assumed to be true, made to support/further an argument

Question 14

Sophists

Answer 14

held no values other than winning and succeeding

Question 15

Synthetic truth

Answer 15

A non contradictory proposition in which a predicate is not entailed by the subject (it adds onto an idea to the subject which is not already contained in)

Question 16

Analytical Truth

Answer 16

Demonstrably true by virtue of the logical form or the meanings of the component words.

Question 17

Apology

Answer 17

formal defense or justification
Also could mean “speech before”

Question 18

Argument

Answer 18

The process of reasoning from one claim to another. An argument may, but need not, be directed against an explicitive alternative.

Question 19

Coherence test for truth

Answer 19

Interconnectedness of a proposition with a specified system of propositions

Question 20

Deduction

Answer 20

A process of reasoning from one principle to another by means of accepted rules of inference. In a deductive argument, a conclusion follows necessarily from the premises.

Question 21

Ethics

Answer 21

What is Good?

Question 22

Induction

Answer 22

A process of reasoning in which the characteristic of an entire class or set of things is inferred on the basis of an acquaintance with some of its members. In an inductive argument, although the conclusion is supported by the premises, it does not follow necessarily from the premises, and its truth is not guaranteed by them.

Question 23

Materialist

Answer 23

A person who values material possessions more important

Question 24

Necessary truth

Answer 24

truths that lie beyond the range of all possible doubt and refutation. Necessary truths are considered to be a priori truths, which means that they are independent of experience. “2
+ 2 = 4” cannot be justified by any possible experience.

Question 25

Pragmatic test for truth

Answer 25

Usefulness of a proposition in achieving certain intellectual goals (if it does what it’s supposed to)

Question 26

Rhetoric

Answer 26

The persuasive use of language to convince other people to accept your beliefs

Question 27

Sound argument

Answer 27

A deductive argument that is valid and has only true premises.

Question 28

Valid argument

Answer 28

(Deductively valid) an argument that follows established truth preserving rules.

Question 29

What is the class definition for “Philosophy”?

Answer 29

Love for wisdom.
Nothing was than taking a carefully critical and questioning view of the world.
Nothing more than thinking hard about the universe.

Question 30

What is the class definition for “Wisdom”?

Answer 30

Knowledge rightly applied.

Question 31

List and define four (4) topical divisions of philosophy.

Answer 31

Metaphysics - What is Real?
Epistemology - What is Reasonable?
Ethics - What is Good?
Aesthetics - What is Beauty?

Question 32

List the four (chronological) periods of philosophy in order & their area of interest.

Answer 32

Ancients - Ontology
Medievals - Theology
Moderns - Epistemology
Post-Moderns - Language

Question 33

What are three (3) skills needed for Philosophy?

Answer 33

1. Analysis
2. Assessment
   - Is it coherent? (Does it make sense, work well)
   - Is it complete? (Do I have enough info, to make decisions)
   - Is it correct? (Is it true or false, right or wrong)
3. Argument

Question 34

List and define the Three Tests for Truth and know in which order they are used.

Answer 34

1. Correspondance - Agreement between a proposition and an actual state-of-affairs
2. Coherence - Interconnectedness of a proposition with a specified system of propositions. (compare with other ideas)
3. Pragmatic - Usefulness of a proposition in achieving certain intellectual goals. (if it does what it’s supposed to do)

Question 35

What is an argument? What are the components of an argument?

Answer 35

The process of reasoning from one claim to another. An argument may, but need not, be directed against an explicative alternative.

Components
- Form: the structure, approach, or method, of inference employed
- Content: the facts, opinions, assertions, etc.

Question 36

Explain the “Pattern of History” presented in the lecture

Answer 36

Step 1: The pattern which is teacher —> student —> grand student (simply list)

Step 2: The teacher teaches the student and the student may like to quietly disagree with the teacher (May disagree if objective)

Step 3: The student teaches the grand student and the grand student may also disagree if objective (objective means to see the way the world is)

Step 4: Grand student borrows from the teacher

Question 37

What is the Socratic Method as it was presented in class and how does it work?

Answer 37

Forms of philosophical inquiry that begins with a pretense of knowledge and proceeds through a process of questioning and answering to reveal errors and contradictions.
(Leading to the realization of ignorance)

1. Begin with the pretense of knowledge (Socratic Argument) - I assume that I alrighty know X (Stages of Wisdom)
2. By question & answer “error” is discovered (demonstrated)? (Socratic Argument) - 1st stage of wisdom: realizing our own failure
3. Continue question & answer in search of “truth” - 2nd stage of wisdom: motivating searched for truth (the truth helps the people surrounding or everyone in general)
4. Agreement (not necessarily full realized) - 3rd stage of wisdom: knowledge

4th stage of wisdom: Apply it correctly

Question 38

What is the “Test for Invalidity” and how does it work?

Answer 38

If P then Q (T)
P. (T)
Then… Q (F)

1. Assume all premises are true
2. Assume it is false
3. Fiction (Try to conceive of a situation where all the premises are true, but the conclusion is false. If you can construct such a scenario, then the argument is invalid.)
4. Test steps 3 and 1 (we wanna test 3 to see if it changes 1’s premise)

Question 39

What are the three major types of logic discussed in class and how does they function?

Answer 39

Deductive Logic - a process of reasoning from one principle to another by means of accepted rules of inference. In a deductive argument, a conclusion follows necessarily from the premise.
If T + T then it must equal T

Inductive Logic (Probably True) - An argument where the premises point out several cases of some pattern, and the conclusion states that this pattern will hold in general.
Premise 1: Every swan I have seen is white.
Conclusion: Therefore, all swans are white.

Abductive Logic - An argument that makes an appeal by inference to the best explanation.
It’s also points out a certain fact, and points out that if a certain hypothesis were true, then we would get this fact, and so concludes that this hypothesis indeed true.

Observation: The grass is wet.
Conclusion: It must have rained last night.

Question 40

What are the three major types of logic discussed in class and how does they function?

Answer 40

Deductive Logic - a process of reasoning from one principle to another by means of accepted rules of inference. In a deductive argument, a conclusion follows necessarily from the premise.
If T + T then it must equal T

Inductive Logic (Probably True) - An argument where the premises point out several cases of some pattern, and the conclusion states that this pattern will hold in general.
Premise 1: Every swan I have seen is white.
Conclusion: Therefore, all swans are white.

Abductive Logic - An argument that makes an appeal by inference to the best explanation.
It’s also points out a certain fact, and points out that if a certain hypothesis were true, then we would get this fact, and so concludes that this hypothesis indeed true.

Observation: The grass is wet.
Conclusion: It must have rained last night.

Question 41

Know the “Worst Kinds of Fallacies” and why they are mistakes.

Answer 41

1. Mere Assertion: Stating something as true without providing any evidence.
   • Mistake: It doesn’t offer any reasoning or support, leaving the claim unverified.
   
   2. Begging the Question: Assuming the conclusion within the premise instead of proving it.
      • Mistake: It results in circular reasoning, offering no real proof.
   3. Vicious Circle: Similar to begging the question, it uses the conclusion as a premise to support itself.
      • Mistake: It fails to advance the argument beyond its original assumption.
   4. Irrelevancies: Bringing up unrelated points that have nothing to do with the argument.
      • Mistake: It distracts from the real issue and leads the conversation off course.
   5. Ad Hominem: Attacking the person instead of the argument.
      • Mistake: It shifts focus away from the issue and undermines logical debate.
   6. Unclear/Shifting Conclusions: Changing or obscuring the conclusion as the argument progresses.
      • Mistake: It prevents a clear resolution and confuses the audience.
   7. Changing Meanings: Using a word with multiple meanings in different parts of the argument to create confusion.
      • Mistake: It leads to equivocation, making the argument inconsistent or misleading.
   8. Distraction: Diverting attention away from the actual argument with irrelevant details or issues.
      • Mistake: It prevents critical evaluation of the main point by focusing on side issues.
   9. Pseudo-questions: Asking questions that are nonsensical or unanswerable.
      • Mistake: It doesn’t move the argument forward or provide any valuable insight.
   10. Dubious Authority: Appealing to an unqualified or biased authority to support an argument.
   • Mistake: It misleads by relying on opinions rather than sound reasoning or evidence.
   11. The Texas Sharpshooter: Cherry-picking data to fit a specific conclusion while ignoring contradictory evidence.
   • Mistake: It distorts the truth by selectively focusing only on data that supports a preconceived belief.
   12. Slippery Slope: Arguing that a minor action will inevitably lead to a series of catastrophic events.
   • Mistake: It assumes extreme outcomes without evidence, fostering unnecessary fear or alarm.
   13. Attacking a Straw Man: Misrepresenting the opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack.
   • Mistake: It avoids engaging with the actual argument, leading to irrelevant or weak rebuttals.
   14. Appeal to Pity: Using emotional appeals to pity rather than presenting logical reasons.
   • Mistake: It manipulates emotions instead of addressing the merits of the argument.
   15. Appeal to Force: Threatening negative consequences instead of providing rational justification.
   • Mistake: It relies on coercion rather than sound reasoning to convince others.
   16. Inappropriate Arguments: Using arguments that are not suitable or relevant to the context or situation.
   • Mistake: It leads to confusion or faulty conclusions by applying the wrong type of reasoning.

These fallacies hinder rational discussion and lead to faulty conclusions because they obscure the truth rather than address it logically.

Question 42

Know the main thesis of each of the following:
a. Aristophanes, The Clouds
b. Plato, The Crito
c. Plato, The Phaedo
d. Plato, The Republic

Answer 42

a. Aristophanes critiques the rise of sophistry and new intellectual trends in Athens, particularly through the character of Socrates. The play depicts how traditional values and the moral fabric of society are threatened by these new teachings, which prioritize rhetorical cleverness over truth and virtue.

b. Socrates doesn’t want to be a hypocrite, a law breaker, so he chooses to die, therefore, he’s innocent.
An idea worth living for may be an idea worth dying for as well.

c. You can not die well unless you live well, and you cannot live well unless you have unfinished business

d. You have to learn to like everything

Question 43

According to lectures what are two (2) charges against Socrates in the Apology?

Answer 43

Impiety
Corrupting the Youth

Question 44

According to Socrates, what are the 5 “Moral Prerequisites” for doing philosophy discussed in the Apology?

Answer 44

• Detachment from worldly goods
• Focused devotion to truth and wisdom
• Courage to stand up to the “common wisdom”
• Humility (Knowing who you are and what your abilities are)
• Calling and Commitment

Question 45

What accusations do Socrates “first” accusers make against him?

Answer 45

1. Corrupting the youth
2. Socrates was a ‘Sophists’
3. Impiety (Atheism)

Question 46

According to Socrates, what did he do to bring in such accusations?

Answer 46

a prophecy by the Oracle of Delphi, led him to question politicians, poets, and craftsmen, exposing their ignorance. This questioning likely offended many and created enemies who later accused him of corrupting the youth of Athens by encouraging them to adopt critical, questioning attitudes toward traditional beliefs and authorities. Ultimately, Socrates believed that his pursuit of truth and virtue was what brought on the accusations, not any intentional wrongdoing.

Question 47

After questioning of politicians, poets, and craftsmen, why does Socrates believe he is wiser than some people who are renowned for their wisdom?

Answer 47

Because he knows that he knows nothing

Question 48

In response to a question from Socrates’ student Chaerephon, what did the oracle of Apollo at Delphi declare about Socrates?

Answer 48

He declared that there was no one wiser than Socrates.

Question 49

According to Socrates, how did he get a reputation for corrupting the young?

Answer 49

his method of questioning established beliefs and authority figures, which attracted the attention of many young Athenians. Which upset people in power who saw Socrates as encouraging disrespect for authority and traditional values.

Question 50

What accusations do Socrates’ “later” accusers make against him?

Answer 50

charged him with corrupting the youth of Athens and impiety, specifically failing to acknowledge the city’s gods and introducing new deities.

Question 51

How does Socrates try to defend himself against the charge that he corrupts the young?

Answer 51

Socrates argues that he has never intentionally harmed anyone, including the young. He asserts that if he were truly corrupting them, it would be unintentional and against his nature, as no one seeks to harm their own community or family.
He also cleverly showed that he is rather improving the young and not corrupting.

Question 52

How does Socrates try to defend himself against the charge that he does not believe in the gods?

Answer 52

He states he believes in demigods and makes them admit demigods are the offspring of gods, therefore a god and that contradicts the accusation.

Question 53

If the jury had been willing to acquit Socrates on the condition that he stop practicing philosophy Socrates says that he would not have agreed to this condition. Why?

Answer 53

he believes that his philosophical inquiries are essential to living a virtuous and examined life. He holds that seeking truth and wisdom is a moral obligation, and that he is serving the city by encouraging critical thinking and ethical reflection. It would break his principles.

Question 54

What does Socrates mean by saying that he is like a gadfly to the city of Athens?’

Answer 54

he means that he plays a crucial role in provoking thought and stimulating action within the city. (By questioning)

Question 55

What punishment does Socrates at first suggest for himself? Why?

Answer 55

suggests that he should be rewarded for his contributions to society rather than punished, proposing that he be given free meals for life, similar to honors granted to athletes who win at the Olympics. He argues that his philosophical work benefits the city by promoting virtue and critical thinking.

Question 56

Why does Socrates not suggest that he be exiled?

Answer 56

Exile would mean giving up his commitment to questioning, teaching, and seeking truth, which he considers essential not only for himself but for the betterment of society.

Question 57

Cervantes Internal and External

Answer 57

Internal - You lie to yourself
External - The world tells you who you are