Exam 1 Flash cards
Action
means by which we explore and learn from the world
Summary of Piaget
Psychologist from switzerland who summarized that his scientific study of general revelation unites science and truth
Schemata or Schemes
patterns of actions or mold into which we pour our experiences (mentally)
Organized ways of making sense of experiences
How do chemes change with age
First schemes: sensorimotor action patterns
Later: deliberate and creative
What learning?
Learning is active, not passive
What are two processes of Scheme evolution?
Assimilation and Accommodation
What is well-adapted intelligence?
Equilibration-Equal balance of the two (Assimilation and Accommodation)
How does adaptation build schemes?
Through direct interaction with the environment
How does assimilation build schemes?
By using current schemes to interpret the external world
How does accommodation build schemes?
Adjusting old schemes and creating new ones to better fit the environment
When and what is the sensorimotor stage?
Birth to 2 years and it is building schemes through sensory and motor exploration
What is included in infant/ toddler cognitive development?
Reflexes and growth of intentional actions, development of imitation, and achieving object permanence
What sensorimotor substage happens between birth and 1 month?
Reflexive schemes
What sensorimotor substage happens between 1 -4 months?
Primary circular reactions
What sensorimotor substage happens between 4-8 months?
Secondary circular reactions
What sensorimotor substage happens between 8-12 months?
Coordination of secondary circular reactions
What sensorimotor substage happens between 12-18 months?
Tertiary circular reaction
What sensorimotor substage happens between 18 months- 2 years?
Mental representation
Challenges for Piaget’s Theory?
Intentional actions, imitation, intentional learning, and object permeance
What is object permanence?
Understanding objects continues to exist when out of sight
How is object permanence revealed?
By retrieval of hidden objects and by tasks involving invisible displacement
How can one identify if awareness is not yet complete for object permeance?
A-not-B search error
What is the violation-of-expectation method?
Renee Baillargeon, Habituation followed by expected event vs. unexpected event
How is longer looking at unexpected interpreted?
As a violation of expectation suggesting some form of object permeance
What are the internal depictions of mental representation?
Images and Concepts
What does mental representation permit?
Advanced object permeance, deferred imitation, and make-believe play
What is the work of imitation with Andy Meltzoff?
Newborn imitation of facial gestures
What is the deferred imitation for 6 weeks?
imitates facial expressions
What is the deferred imitation for 6-9 months?
copies novel actions with objects
What is the deferred imitation for 12-14 months?
imitates rationally
What is the deferred imitation for 14-18 months?
imitates actions that are intended but not completed
What are the capacities that developed earlier than Piaget suggested?
Object permanence, deferred imitation, and problem-solving by analogy
What are the capacities that developed when Piaget suggested?
Object search, A-not-B , and make-believe play
What is the core knowledge perspective?
Babies are born with a set of core domains of thought:
innate, special purpose knowledge systems, permit a quick grasp of related information, and support early rapid development
What are the suggested core domains of thought for babies?
Physical. lingustic, Psychological, and numerical
What is the mind as the information processor model?
Development is continuous not stage-like, and more descriptive than theoretical
What is the computer analogy model?
Attention-encoding, and memory and categorization-storage and retrieval
What is the sensory register for information processing
Sights and sounds are represented directly, stored briefly
What is the short-term memory store?
attended-to information is retained briefly and “worked” on
What is working memory?
number of items that can be briefly held in mind while engaging in some effort to manipulate them
What is a long-term memory?
Permanent knowledge base
What improvements are made in the cognitive System?
Increase in basic capacity of memory stores and increase in speed with which information is worked on.
What cognitive gains happen with attention?
improved efficiency, ability to shift focus, less attraction to novelty, and improved sustained attention
What cognitive gains happen with memory?
Longer retention intervals, and development of recall by after 6 months
What cognitive gains happen with categorization?
the gradual shift from perceptual to conceptual categorization in toddlerhood
What is perceptual?
first categories are based on physical properties and by 6 months, babies categorize on basis of two correlated features
What is conceptual?
Shift to categories based on common function or behavior and cultural differences in the development of categories (language)
What is Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory?
-Social influence affects mental strategies
-complex mental activities develop through joint activities with more mature members of the child’s society
What are environmental issues that impact cognition?
Quality of home life and daycare
What is the zone of proximal development?
tasks too difficult for a child to do alone but possible with help of more skilled partners
How are features of a high-quality home life tested?
Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME)
What is the Empiricist theory of language development?
Environment determines language through trial and error and reward and punishment
What is the Nativist theory of language development?
Innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD) contains universal grammar and infants biologically prepared to learn language
What is the Interactionist theory of language development?
Interaction between inner capacities and environmental influences
What is the social-interactionist view?
Emphasizes social skills and language experiences
What are the components of language?
Grammar which contains phonology, morphology, semantics, and syntax
What are the structural units of language?
Phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences
What are the universal stages of production?
Crying and cooing, Babbling, and patterned speech
What does comprehension proceed?
production
How can you support early language learning with infants?
Respond, establish joint affection, play social games, teach sign language, infant-directed speech
How can you support early language learning with toddlers?
Engage in joint make-believe and frequent conversations, read often, and talk about books
What is the study of Developmental science?
Of constancy and change throughout the lifespan
What is the field of developmental science?
Scientific, applied, interdisciplinary, and “worldview” dependent
What is the science-based theory?
An orderly set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior.
What is nature?
Hereditary information received from parents at conception
What is nurture?
Physical and social forces that influence biological and psychological development
What is stability?
Persistence of individual differences and lifelong patterns established by early experiences
What is plasticity?
Development is open to lifelong change based on influential experiences
How is development a dynamic system?
It is an ongoing process from conception to death
What is the lifespan perspective?
Development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, highly plastic, and influenced by multiple interacting forces.
What is Darwin’s theory?
Theory of evolution: natural selection and survival of the fittest
What is the normative approach?
Hall and Gesell: child study movement based on development as a maturational process
What is the mental testing movement?
Binet and Simon: First successful intelligence test and identifies struggling school children
What is Freud and Erikson’s theory?
Emphasizes an individual’s unique life history and conflicts between biological drives and social expectations
What are Freud’s three parts of personality?
Id, Ego, and superego
What is Id?
The largest portion of the mind, unconscious, present at birth, and a source of biological needs/desires
What is Ego?
The conscious, rational part of the personality that emerges in early infancy and redirects id impulses in acceptable ways
What is the superego?
It is the conscience and develops from ages 3 to 6 through interactions with caregivers
What are Freud’s psychosexual stages?
Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital
What is the classical conditioning theory?
Stimulus-response
What is the operant conditioning theory?
Reinforcers and punishments
What is the social learning theory?
Social cognitive approach imitation/modeling
What is Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory?
Children actively construct knowledge by manipulating and exploring their world, mental structures adapt to better fit with the environment, and development moves through four broad stages
What are Piaget’s stages for gaining cognitive knowledge?
Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
What is Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory?
Development in a social context where cooperative dialogues between children and adults who shape/improve/guide development
What is the developmental cognitive Neuroscience
A relationship of brain changes to cognitive processing and behavior patterns that brings researchers together from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine.
What are common research methods?
Systematic observation, self-reports, clinical/case study, and Ethnography
What is a systematic observation?
Naturalistic and structured observation
What are self-report observations?
clinical interview and a structured interview with questionnaires and tests
What are naturalistic observations?
Observation of behavior in natural contexts and reflects participants’ everyday lives
What are structured observations?
Observation of behavior in the laboratory allows all participants to display behavior.
What is a clinical interview?
Conversational style and probes for participants’ viewpoint
What is a structured interview?
All participants are asked the same questions in the same
What is the clinical/case study method?
A full picture of an individual’s psychological functioning and combines information from interviews, observations, and test scores.
What is an ethnography?
Participant observation of culture or social group provides rich descriptive insights and does not permit generalization from findings
What is correlational?
Reveals relationships between traits and behavior and does not permit cause-and-effect conclusions
What is experimental?
People randomly assigned to treatment conditions and detect cause-and-effect relations and may not apply in real-world conditions
What is an IV?
Manipulated by the experimenter and expected to cause changes in another variable
What is a DV?
Measured by the experimenter and expected to be influenced by IV
What is a random assignment?
An unbiased procedure is used to assign participants to treatment conditions and it increases the chances that characteristics will be equally distributed across conditions
What is Longitudinal research?
The same group studied at different times
What is cross-sectional research?
Different groups studied at the same time
What is sequential research?
Compares similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies (sequences)
What are the rights of research participants?
Protection from harm, informed consent, privacy, knowledge of results, and beneficial treatments
What is a Genotype?
An individual’s genetic information
What is a Phenotype?
An individual’s directly observable characteristics.
What is a 23-pair of chromosomes?
Rodlike structures within the cells that store and transmit genetic information.
What is DNA?
Deoxyribonucleic acid, the chemical substance that makes up chromosomes
What is a Gene?
Segment of DNA along the length of the chromosome
What are alleles?
Two forms of the same gene, one inherited from each parent and occur at the same place on both chromosomes in a pair
What is homozygous?
Both alleles are alike
What is heterozygous?
Alleles differ
what is dominant-recessive inheritance?
only the dominant allele affects children’s phenotypes (characteristics) and carriers are heterozygous for they have one recessive allele
What is polygenic inheritance?
Characteristics influenced by many genes and many traits are height, weight, intelligence, and personality
What are environmental contexts for development?
Family, socioeconomic status and family functioning, neighborhoods, and cultural context
Family influences on development
Direct Inf. are relationships with the family and Indirect Inf. are effects of third parties (grandparents)
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Social status: years of education and prestige of one’s job and the skill it requires and economic status is income
Benefits of strong Community ties
Neighborhoods: resources and social ties that promote development
Towns and cities: mold children’s and adults’ daily lives
Small towns: promote connection and participation
What so cultural values and practices do?
Shape daily life within and outside the family- good or bad
what are subcultures?
Cooperative family structures help protect members from the harmful effects of society: Collectivism vs, individualism
What are public policies?
Laws and programs designed to improve current conditions
Prenatal development:
Development of a new human baby from conception to birth
What is the zygote period?
2 weeks and fertilization in the fallopian tube, implantation in the uterus, and the start of the placenta
What is the embryo period?
6 weeks, Groundwork laid for all body structures and internal organs, most rapid growth
When does the brain form?
Out of neural tube at 3 1/2 weeks
What is the Fetus period?
30 weeks, “growth and finishing” phase, month 3 till birth
What is the 3rd month period?
Organs, muscles, and nervous systems start to become organized and connected, lungs begin to expand and contract
What is the 2nd trimester?
many organs are well-developed. by 20 weeks, most of the brain’s neurons are in place–followed by massive weight gain-10-fold by birth
What is the third trimester?
age of viability 22-26 weeks and the fetus takes on the beginnings of personality-correlated with fetal activity
What are teratogens?
Toxins
The harm done by teratogens done by?
dose, heredity, age, and delayed health effects may show up decades later
What are teratogenic substances?
Most varieties of drugs, radiation, environmental pollution, and infectious disease
What are some maternal factors in prenatal development?
Nutrition, emotional stress, Rh factor incompatibility, age, and lack of prenatal health care
What are the stages of childbirth?
Dilation and effacement of the cervix, delivery of the baby, and delivery of the placenta
What is the average appearance of a newborn?
20 inches and 7.5 lbs with large head and big eyes
When is the Apgar scale taken?
After birth in min 1 + min 5, and 10 is the best score
Height increases by ?
50% by age 1 and 75% by age 2
Weight doubles by?
5 months and triples by 1 year
How does the growth occur?
in spurts
What are group differences in growth?
Male/female and ethnic
What is the skeletal age?
The best estimate of physical maturity
What are neurons?
Nerve cells that store and transmit information
What are synapses?
Tiny gaps where fibers from different neurons come together but do not touch
What are Neurotransmitters?
Chemicals that are released by neurons and cross the synapse
What is the prefrontal cortex?
The region of the cerebral cortex responsible for thought undergoes rapid growth in the preschool and school years, and adolescence
What is the Left hemisphere?
Verbal abilities, positive emotion, Sequential, analytic processing
What is the right hempisphere?
Spatial abilities,negative emotion, holistic integrative processing
what is brain Plasticity?
At birth hemispheres have begin to specialize, highly plastic cerebral cortex has high capacity for learning, if other parts of cortex is damaged, other areas can take over its tasks, and older children and adults retain come plasticity, but less than in young children
What are influences on early growth?
Heredity, Nutrition, Malnutrition
What are infant and toddler ability to learn?
Classical and operant conditioning
What is reinforcer?
Increases probability that behavior will occur again by presenting desirable stimulus and removing unpleasant stimulus
What is punishment?
Reduces probability that behavior will occur again by presenting unpleasant stimulus and removing desirable stimulus
What is habituation?
Ignoring irrelevant stimuli or getting bored
what is vision?
Supported by rapid maturation of eyes and visual centers in brain
