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Bio 310 > EXAM 1: Ch1-5 > Flashcards

EXAM 1: Ch1-5 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q
  1. Some people believe that SARS CoV-2 originated in a lab. What are three compelling genetic reasons why this is very unlikely to be the case?
A
  1. Closely related to a bat
  2. wild virus 96% match)
  3. If it was created, it would reveal a genetic backbone.
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2
Q

What does it mean to say that viruses undergo recombination?

A

Usually we think of recombination as something that occurs in meiosis (Chapter 2). But it can also occur in haploid cells like bacteria as well as viruses. In this case, it occurs when viruses that are distinct somehow come into close proximity (probably by coinfecting the same cell) and each ends up contributing part of their genome to new virus—a virus with a genome that is a new combination of genomic regions from the parental strains.

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3
Q

Using the concept of a molecular clock, how long ago did Boni et al. estimate that SARS 1 and SARS CoV-2 diverge?

A

The point estimate is around 1200 (800 years ago, but the confidence interval is wide and extends to 1600, or 400 years ago).

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4
Q

In biology, what do we call one of these branching figures with species or samples at the tips?

A

A phylogeny or a phylogenetic tree.

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5
Q

Are species (or samples) that are separated by short branches closely related or distantly related?

A

Extant species are at the tips of such a tree. You trace branches back to find forks, or nodes. These represent the common ancestor between the descendent species. How long the branches are you must trace back to find this common ancestor tells you how much genetic evolution separates the extant species. The answer to the question should be clear from what I’ve written.

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6
Q

What is molecular epidemiology? What is a superspreader event?

A

A superspreasder event is where many people become infected at the same time and place—either because someone is transmitting a lot of virus (highly infectious), because the conditions are perfect (e.g. indoors for a prolonged period of time without mask wearing), or, most often, both.

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7
Q

example, did scientists use air traffic data and contact tracing to know how the virus spread? Or is there something in the virus itself that records the pattern of how it spreads and, if so, what?

A

Mutations accumulate as viruses are transmitted from one host to the next. Because new mutations hardly ever overwrite (or reverse) previous mutations (at least on the short time scales we are talking about here), it means that the mutations contain a record of transmission patterns across time and space.

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8
Q
  1. Vaccines: What protein are the leading vaccines using as their target for eliciting an immune response? Why this protein and not others from SARS CoV-2?
A

Because this protein is the major target of our adaptive immune system when the virus infects our body.

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9
Q

Molecular Epidemiology

A

Using geniomic sequencing and modeling to infer the spread, dynamics of infectious diseases

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10
Q

Pseudotype

A 
Unrelated virus with SARS protein
Switching D (aspertate) for G (glycine) ever so slightly tweaks the spike protein
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11
Q

How would covid vaccine work @ a genetic level

A

focuss on th spike protein because we build antibodies on spike proteins (inject genetic info of spike protein into cells)

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12
Q

How can we make a tree describing the relationship of all living things when living things are some mind-blowingly different from each other? In other words, what feature do all living things share that we can use to build a tree?

A

all living things on Earth can trace their descent back to a common ancestor. … Then, we can use the shared derived traits to organize the species into

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13
Q

What are the major phylogenetic domains of all cellular organisms?

A

The three domains are the Archaea, the Bacteria, and the Eukarya

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14
Q

What domain of the biological world is not cellular and not readily comparable to cellular organisms?

A

Viruses

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15
Q

Which of the phylogenetic domains are the prokaryotes?

A

eubacteria and archaebacteria

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16
Q

What is the major differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

eukaryotic cells have a distinct nucleus containing the cell’s genetic material, while prokaryotic cells don’t have a nucleus and have free-floating genetic material instead

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17
Q

T or F: all prokaryotes are more closely related to each other than they are to eukaryotes.

A

F

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18
Q

What are the three major divisions of genetics?

A

transmission genetics, molecular genetics, and population genetics

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19
Q

Why, in genetics, are we so obsessed with tracking chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis?

A

Although mitosis and meiosis both involve cell division, they transmit genetic material

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20
Q

What’s it mean to say that a cell is diploid? What does it mean to say it’s haploid?

A

Haploid” refers to any cell that has 23 chromosomes (half of the total 46). “Gametes” are specifically sex cells that have 23 chromosomes. “Diploid” refers to any cell that has all 46 chromosomes

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21
Q

Sars COV 2 orgin in bats is what division of genetics

A

Population

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22
Q

Bedfords discovery of transmission is what division of genetics

A

Transmission and population

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23
Q

D614G affects hydrogen bond is what division of genetics

A

Molecular

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24
Q

Karyotype

A

complete set of the chromosomes

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25
Q

T/F Archea is closer related to Eukaryotes than to bacteria

A

True

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26
Q

In mitosis, what are lined up alont the center and then pulled apart?

A

Sister Chromatids

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27
Q

What happens during meisosi 1 +2?

A

1: homologues are lined up and then pulled apart
2: sister chromatids are lined up then pulled apart

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28
Q

Crossing over, when does it occur?

A

prophase of meiosis 1

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29
Q

when does assortment occur?

A

Metaphase 1 and anaphase 1

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30
Q

If a species has n chromosomes how many ways can it be shuffled?

A

2^n, alot of genetic variation without crososing over

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31
Q

How are bacteria different from both archea and eukaryotes?

A

bacteria have no histones associated with their chromosomes and the other two groups do

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32
Q

In which stage of the cell cycle does the cell duplicate its DNA?

A

S phase

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33
Q

Eukaryotic cells that contain more than two sets of genetic information are referred to as…

A

polyploid

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34
Q

Function of the telomere?

A

to protect the end of the DNA molecule

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35
Q

What is the constricted region of the chromosome where the kinetochore forms

A

centromere

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36
Q

The products of mitosis normally are

A

genetically identical to the parent cell

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37
Q

What stage of mitosis involves sister chromatids separating and moving toward opposite poles?

A

anaphase

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38
Q

In order to pass the G2/ M checkpoint the cell must have

A

DNA replicated and undamaged

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39
Q

A cell has 6 chromosomes while in G1 stage. How many chromosomes and how many DNA molecules will it have in G2?

A

6 chromosomes and 12 DNA molecules

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40
Q

In which stage of meiosis does the separation of homologous chromosomes occur?

A

Anaphase 1

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41
Q

One source of genetic variation is the random distribution materna and paternal chromosomes, the other is ….

A

crossing over at prophase 1

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42
Q

Which statement is not a difference between meiosis and mitosis

A

sister chromatids seperate during mitosis but not meiosis

- separate in mitosis and 2nd division of meiosis

43
Q

How many ova, plural ovum, can be produced from two primary oocytes through meiosis?

A

two

44
Q

the two proceeses that can create genetic differences

A

independent assortment and crossing over

45
Q

What is n in 2^n?

A

n represents the number of homologous chromosome paris per cell entering meiosis

46
Q

crossing over shuffles alleles on

A

non sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes

47
Q

Transmission genetics

A

how genes are passed from parents to offspring

48
Q

Population genetics

A

how organisms that share genes (populations) change over time

49
Q

Molecular genetics

A

molecular details of how genetic information is stored, replicated and processed

50
Q

alleles

A

different versions of a gene

51
Q

S phase

A

DNA duplicates

52
Q

M phase

A

nuclear and cell division

53
Q

Where do microtubules attatch?

A

kinetochore

54
Q

Mitosis

A

sister chromatids seperate and move toward opposite poles

chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate

55
Q

Meiosis

A

gametes are produced that carry half the normal # of chromosomes

56
Q

Fertilization

A

two haploid gametes fuse and restore to diploid

57
Q

Heterozygote

A

2 different alleles

58
Q

Homozygote

A

2 copies of same alele

59
Q

The principle of segregation

A

each individual diploid organism posseses two alleles for any particular characteristic. These two alleles segregate when gametes are formed and one allele goes into each game. the alleles segregate in equal proportions during meiosis.

60
Q

Independent vs mutually exclusive

A 
Independent= x
ME= +
61
Q

heterogametic

A

males XY

62
Q

homogametic

A

females XX

63
Q

Do all chromosomes benefit from recombination?

A

Not the Y chromosomes

64
Q

SRY

A

a trasncription factor. Expressed or not expressed

protein that binds DNA near specific genes to turn then on.

65
Q

Nondisjunction

A

when chromosomes dont segregate properly in meiosis. Various possibilities exhist

66
Q

Which karotype is lethal?

A

YO- can live without a Y but cannot live without an X

67
Q

Chromosomal mosacisim

A

Cell missing chromosome

68
Q

Phenotypes

A
  1. Femalese are diploid (XX) recessive alleles are masked in heterozygotes. Males are haploid (X) recessive are unmasked
69
Q

Autosomal phenotypes

A

everyone is diploid= recessive are masked in the heterozygotes, unmasked in homozygotes

70
Q

Heredity

A

daughters always get their fathers X and a random one of their mothers two X’s/
sons get no X from their fathers (they get a Y) and they get a random one of mothers two Xs

71
Q

Disappearing

A

affected fathers pass it to 100% of their daughters since usually the mother is a non-carrier, the daughters will be carriers

72
Q

Reappearing

A

When the daughters grow up and have children, 1/2 of their sons will be affected

73
Q

Dosage Compensation

A

Mechanisms to deal with unequal # of chromosomes

  1. doubled expression of genes on X in XY/XX
  2. inactive all but 1 X chromosomes
74
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A

when the heterozygote has a phenotype intermediate between the two homozygotes
1:2:1

75
Q

Complete Dominance

A

when the heterozygote phenotype matches the homozygote dominant
3:1

76
Q

Codominace

A

both traits are shown

patchy color

77
Q

blood types

A

AB can get any blood

O is universal donor

78
Q

Epistasis

A

when the gynotype at one gene masks the genotype another

- antigen cannot be added

79
Q

Epistatic

A

gene that does the masking

80
Q

hypostatic

A

gene that gets masked

81
Q

example of recessive epistasis

A

Labrador retriever color

anything with ee is yellow

82
Q

Dominant epistasis

A

a dominant allele at one locus masks the effect of another locus

83
Q

9:3:3:1 ?

A

dihybrid cross, two independent loci

84
Q

With genetic sex-determination mechanism, what is true?

A

Sex is determined by genes on undifferentiated chromosomes

85
Q

What did Mary Lyon propose about sex chromosomes in mammals?

A

One X chromosome in each female cell becomes inactivated, and the process of selection is random

86
Q

A human male has XXXXXY would contain how many barr bodies?

A

2

87
Q

In the evolution of a Y chromosome in mammalia, what can be assumed?

A

it evolved from an autosome

88
Q

A mutant human gene will be inherited by

A

all of the sons but none of the daughters

89
Q

model genetic organisms

A

organisms that are widely used in genetic research and can serve as models for genetic systems

90
Q

Barr Bodies

A

dark staining bodies in the nuclei of cells from female cats discovered by Murray Barr
an inactive X chromosome

91
Q

Lethal Alleles

A

2:1 ratio

92
Q

F2 phenotypic ratio duplicate recessive

A

9:7

93
Q

F2 dominant epistasis

A

12:3:1

94
Q

F2 recessive epistasis

A

9:3:4

95
Q

A _____ allele causes death at an early stage, often before birth and, therefore, some genotypes do not appear in the progeny.

A

lethal

96
Q

Why does gene interaction often arise when different loci influence different steps in a common biochemical pathway?

A

the product of one enzyme affects the substrate of another

97
Q

Anticipation is the

A

stronger or earlier expression of a trait as it is passed from generation to generation.

98
Q

In the human ABO blood type system, which of the following outcomes is NOT expected to occur?

A

an AB child from a mating of an A individual and an O individual

99
Q

True or False? It is possible to see gene interaction at multiple loci.

A

True

100
Q

True or False? A father that is heterozygous for precocious puberty, a sex-limited characteristic, has a 50% chance of passing on the allele to his child, regardless of the child’s sex.

A

True

101
Q

Characteristics that have a few easily distinguished phenotypes are called _____ characteristics.

A

discontinuous

102
Q

A phenotype produced by an environmental effect that mimics a phenotype produced by a genotype is called a

A

phenocopy

103
Q

A 13:3 ratio is produced by

A

gene interaction

Bio 310 (4 decks)

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