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A&P II spring 2025 (Steele) > Exam 1: AI Lecture 2 > Flashcards

Exam 1: AI Lecture 2 Flashcards

1
Q
A
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2
Q

What is the Reynolds number?

A

A hypothetical number that is completely unitless.

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3
Q

What does a Reynolds number greater than 2000 indicate?

A

It indicates turbulent flow.

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4
Q

What is turbulent flow characterized by?

A

Blood moving in all different directions, potentially wasting energy and increasing the risk for clotting.

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5
Q

What is the equation for Reynolds number?

A

Reynolds Number (RE) = V x D x P ÷ h

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6
Q

What do the variables in the Reynolds number equation represent?

A
  • V = velocity
  • D = diameter
  • P = density
  • h = viscosity
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7
Q

Which blood vessels are most prone to turbulent flow?

A

Large arteries close to the heart, such as the Aorta and Large Arteries.

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8
Q

What happens to blood flow in the venous system?

A

It holds a larger volume, and pressure changes little with volume changes.

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9
Q

What is the relationship between pressure and volume in the arterial system?

A

Pressure changes a lot when volume changes a little, indicating low compliance.

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10
Q

How does sympathetic stimulation affect arterial pressure?

A

Removing sympathetic stimulation decreases pressure faster in arteries than in veins.

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11
Q

What is a pressure-volume loop?

A

It looks at different pressures and volumes in the chambers of the heart during the cardiac cycle.

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12
Q

What is the first phase of the cardiac cycle?

A

Filling phase, where the heart fills primarily through passive filling.

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13
Q

What is end systolic volume (ESV)?

A

The volume of blood left in the ventricle after contraction, typically around 50 ml.

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14
Q

What role does atrial contraction play in ventricular filling?

A

It provides a small amount of additional volume, typically around 10 ml.

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15
Q

What is the effect of high velocity on turbulent flow risk?

A

Higher velocity increases the risk of turbulent flow.

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16
Q

True or False: Viscosity is usually associated with thickness.

A

True.

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17
Q

What is the difference between density and viscosity?

A
  • Density = mass per volume
  • Viscosity = thickness of a fluid
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18
Q

What is a characteristic of a compliant system?

A

It readily accepts volume with little change in pressure.

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19
Q

What happens to pressure during sympathetic stimulation?

A

It can increase pressure significantly in the arteries.

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20
Q

Fill in the blank: The primary filling of the heart is _______.

A

passive.

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21
Q

What is the typical volume of blood filling the ventricle during the filling phase?

A

About 70 cc.

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22
Q

What is one method of measuring blood flow?

A

Using an electromagnetic probe.

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23
Q

What happens to turbulent flow when there’s a narrowing in blood vessels?

A

It can lead to blood spraying in all directions, increasing the risk for plaque deposits.

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24
Q

What happens to the atria in healthy individuals during the filling process?

A

The atria isn’t necessary for filling; passive flow from the pulmonary vein can fill the ventricle with about 110 cc’s.

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25
Q

What is the role of atrial kick in heart failure?

A

In heart failure, the atrial contraction can contribute about 25% or more of the ventricular volume.

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26
Q

Define diastole in the context of the cardiac cycle.

A

Diastole is the phase of filling; it starts when the ventricles have completed their contraction.

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27
Q

What occurs during Phase 1 of the cardiac cycle?

A

The vast majority of filling happens; pressure in the atria is higher than in the ventricle, and the mitral valve is open.

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28
Q

What characterizes Phase 2 of the cardiac cycle?

A

The heart contracts, increasing left ventricular pressure, which forces the mitral valve to close.

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29
Q

What is the isovolumetric contraction phase?

A

It is the phase where both the mitral and aortic valves are closed while the ventricle contracts, resulting in no change in volume.

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30
Q

What happens during Phase 3 of the cardiac cycle?

A

The left ventricular pressure exceeds aortic pressure, causing the aortic valve to open and allowing blood ejection.

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31
Q

How is stroke volume calculated?

A

Stroke volume is the difference between end-diastolic volume (LVEDV) and end-systolic volume.

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32
Q

What happens during Phase 4 of the cardiac cycle?

A

The ventricle relaxes, intraventricular pressure decreases, and the mitral valve opens at the end of this phase.

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33
Q

Fill in the blank: Systole starts officially at the end of Phase _______.

A

1

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34
Q

What is the relationship between electrical events and pressure changes in the heart?

A

Electrical events, such as depolarization, occur before pressure changes in the ventricles.

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35
Q

What defines the start of diastole?

A

Diastole starts when the aortic valve closes.

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36
Q

What defines the start of systole?

A

Systole starts at the end of diastole when the ventricles contract.

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37
Q

What is the significance of the pressure-volume loop in cardiac function?

A

It illustrates the relationship between pressure and volume during different phases of the cardiac cycle.

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38
Q

True or False: The aortic valve opens when left ventricular pressure is lower than aortic pressure.

A

False

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39
Q

What happens to ventricular pressure during filling?

A

Ventricular pressure is very low during filling and only rises significantly at the end of filling.

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40
Q

During which phase is the mitral valve closed?

A

The mitral valve is closed during phases 2 and 3.

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41
Q

What does the area within the pressure-volume loop represent?

A

The external work done by the heart during the cardiac cycle.

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42
Q

Fill in the blank: The difference between the beginning and end of Phase 3 gives us our _______.

A

stroke volume

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43
Q

What is the expected stroke volume if the left ventricular end diastolic volume is 120 ml and end systolic volume is 50 ml?

A

70 ml

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44
Q

Describe the pressure in the ventricle during systole.

A

Ventricular pressure is high during systole.

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45
Q

What occurs during the first phase of ventricular filling?

A

Rapid filling of the ventricle occurs as the mitral valve opens

46
Q

How is Phase 1 of ventricular filling divided?

A

Into three parts: rapid filling, middle third with minimal changes, and a slight increase in volume at the end

47
Q

What is the effect of a stenotic mitral valve on ventricular filling?

A

It slows down the filling process from the left atrium to the left ventricle

48
Q

What happens to cardiac output during tachycardia with a bad mitral valve?

A

Cardiac output becomes problematic due to insufficient filling time

49
Q

What is the volume of the ventricle right before the aortic valve opens?

A

120 cc’s

50
Q

What is the volume of blood ejected from the ventricle during systole?

A

70 cc’s

51
Q

True or False: The heart stops ejecting blood at the peak of aortic pressure.

A

False

52
Q

What does the pressure-volume loop diagram represent?

A

It shows various cardiac cycle variables plotted over time

53
Q

What is isovolumetric contraction?

A

A phase where pressure increases without a change in volume

54
Q

What correlates with the first heart sound in the cardiac cycle?

A

Closure of the AV valves

55
Q

What correlates with the second heart sound in the cardiac cycle?

A

Closure of the aortic valve

56
Q

What is the normal right atrial pressure?

A

Zero mmHg

57
Q

What is the output of the right ventricle at normal right atrial pressure?

A

About 5L/min

58
Q

Fill in the blank: The left atrial pressure should be about _______ at normal conditions.

A

2 mmHg

59
Q

What is the relationship between cardiac output and venous return?

A

You can’t have cardiac output without venous return

60
Q

What happens to atrial pressure when the atria contract?

A

Atrial pressure increases

61
Q

What is the primary purpose of the mitral valve?

A

To allow blood to flow from the left atrium into the left ventricle

62
Q

What happens to atrial pressure when the AV valves close?

A

Atrial pressure rises due to blood returning to the heart

63
Q

What is the significance of the Carl J. Wiggers diagram?

A

It provides a comprehensive view of the cardiac cycle and pressures

64
Q

What does an increase in atrial pressure during systole indicate?

A

Blood returning to the heart has nowhere to go

65
Q

What happens to atrial pressure once the AV valves open?

A

Atrial pressure drops quickly as blood moves into the ventricle

66
Q

What is the expected cardiac output at right atrial pressure of zero?

A

5L/min

67
Q

What is the normal venous return rate to the heart?

A

5L/min

This is the expected blood flow returning to the heart under normal conditions.

68
Q

What does a right atrial pressure of zero indicate?

A

Normal cardiac output

A right atrial pressure of zero suggests that the heart can pump out the same amount of blood that is being returned.

69
Q

How does higher right atrial pressure affect venous return?

A

Lower venous return

If right atrial pressure is higher than normal, venous return decreases if there are no compensatory mechanisms.

70
Q

What happens to venous return as right atrial pressure increases?

A

It decreases

Higher right atrial pressures lead to lower venous return due to reduced delta P.

71
Q

What is delta P in the context of the cardiovascular system?

A

Average pressure minus pressure at the end of the system

Delta P is crucial for understanding blood flow dynamics within the circulatory system.

72
Q

What effect does a negative right atrial pressure have on venous return?

A

Augments venous return

If the right atrial pressure is significantly lower than normal, it increases the delta P and can enhance venous return.

73
Q

What is the plateau phase in venous return?

A

A limit to increased venous return at about 6 liters per minute

This plateau occurs when the right atrial pressure is very low, causing central veins to collapse.

74
Q

What is the mean systemic filling pressure (PSF)?

A

Average pressure in the cardiovascular system

The normal mean systemic filling pressure is approximately 7 mmHg.

75
Q

What happens to the systemic filling pressure when the heart is paused?

A

It stabilizes at mean systemic filling pressure

The pressure within the system equilibrates to PSF when there is no heart output.

76
Q

How does blood volume affect systemic filling pressure?

A

Higher blood volume increases filling pressure

More blood in the system contributes to a higher mean systemic filling pressure.

77
Q

What two factors primarily affect systemic filling pressure?

A
  • Blood Volume
  • Venous Tone

These factors influence how much blood the veins can hold and how easily it can return to the heart.

78
Q

What is the relationship between right atrial pressure and venous return?

A

Higher right atrial pressure makes it harder to fill the heart

If right atrial pressure exceeds 0 mmHg, filling the heart becomes more difficult.

79
Q

True or False: Increased mean systemic filling pressure changes the slope of the venous return curve.

A

False

Increasing mean systemic filling pressure shifts the curve to the right without changing its slope.

80
Q

What is the effect of resistance to venous return on cardiac output?

A

Lower resistance increases venous return and cardiac output

Resistance to venous return affects how easily blood returns to the heart.

81
Q

What happens to venous return if systemic filling pressure is halved?

A

Venous return and cardiac output are also cut in half

This is due to a decrease in delta P available for filling the heart.

82
Q

Fill in the blank: The normal mean systemic filling pressure is ______.

A

7 mmHg

This is the average pressure that helps fill the right atrium.

83
Q

What can happen to veins when intra-thoracic pressures are elevated?

A

Veins can collapse

High pressures in the thorax can impede blood flow back to the heart.

84
Q

What is the expected venous return at a mean systemic filling pressure of 14 mmHg?

A

10 L/min

This assumes a normal right atrial pressure of 0 mmHg and a doubling of the filling pressure.

85
Q

What happens to chest veins if internal pressure is not compensated?

A

They may collapse before delivering blood to the heart.

86
Q

How does thoracic pressure influence blood flow?

A

It can augment flow or prevent venous return.

87
Q

What is the expected cardiac output with a right atrial pressure of zero?

A

Five liters per minute.

88
Q

What occurs when right atrial pressure increases in a healthy heart?

A

Cardiac output increases significantly.

89
Q

At what right atrial pressure does cardiac output typically plateau in a healthy heart?

A

About four mmHg.

90
Q

What mechanisms explain increased cardiac output with filling pressures?

A
  • Cross bridge alignment (Frank-Starling mechanism)
  • Direct atrial stretch.
91
Q

What is the Frank-Starling mechanism?

A

It describes improved contractility due to optimal alignment of ventricular muscle fibers.

92
Q

What does direct atrial stretch do to heart rate?

A

It increases heart rate by about 10 to 15%.

93
Q

What is the Bainbridge reflex?

A

An external reflex that increases heart rate in response to higher filling pressures.

94
Q

How much can the Bainbridge reflex increase heart rate?

A

About 40 to 50%.

95
Q

What does increased sympathetic stimulation do to cardiac output?

A

It raises the plateau of the cardiac output curve.

96
Q

What happens to right atrial pressure with strong heart contraction?

A

It may be lower than normal.

97
Q

What condition can lead to elevated right atrial pressure?

A

Heart failure.

98
Q

How does the body compensate for a struggling heart in heart failure?

A

By increasing filling pressures to maintain adequate cardiac output.

99
Q

What determines the actual cardiac output in the circulatory system?

A

Conditions of the circulatory system and conditions of the heart.

100
Q

What is the relationship between cardiac output and venous return?

A

Cardiac output must equal venous return.

101
Q

What effect does increasing filling pressure have on venous return?

A

It shifts the venous return curve to the right.

102
Q

What is the effect of stimulating the heart strongly without changes in circulation?

A

Cardiac output increases only slightly.

103
Q

What happens to cardiac output when both filling pressure and heart stimulation are increased?

A

Cardiac output increases significantly.

104
Q

What is the impact of a heart that is not pumping effectively?

A

Right atrial pressure increases as filling pressure builds.

105
Q

What is a typical cardiac output for an elite athlete?

A

Around 40 liters per minute.

106
Q

What is the expected cardiac output in liters per minute?

A

13 liters per minute

107
Q

What two changes can increase cardiac output significantly?

A

Strongly stimulate the heart and increase the filling pressure

108
Q

What happens to cardiac output if only the heart is stimulated without changing blood return?

A

Not much change in output

109
Q

What effect does improving blood return to the heart have on cardiac output?

A

Cardiac output picks up significantly

110
Q

What is required for maximal cardiac output?

A

Coordination of both heart stimulation and blood return

111
Q

Fill in the blank: If I don’t change something with the way that blood is being returned to the heart, I’m kind of limited in what _______ change I should expect to see.

A

output

112
Q

True or False: Strongly stimulating the heart alone is sufficient for significant changes in cardiac output.

A

False

A&P II spring 2025 (Steele) (3 decks)

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