Exam 1 Flashcards
Tenacity
acceptance of a belief based on the idea that “we have always known it to be this way”
ex: popular sayings-opposites attract, can’t teach dogs new tricks
Authority
acceptance of a belief because an authority figure tells us it is so
Reason
acceptance of a belief because it conforms to the rules of logic
Intuition
acceptance of a belief based on our feeling that it is true
Common sense
acceptance of a belief based on our sense that there’s a shared understanding
Personal experience
acceptance of a belief based on our own experiences
Science
acceptance of a belief based on the results of observation and experimentation
Theoretical definition
the meaning of a variable in words
Operational definition
the meaning of a variable in terms of the method(s) used to manipulate or measure it
Social comparison theory
we compare ourselves to other people to determine our own worth
Upward social comparison
comparing with someone better than us
often makes us feel worse about ourselves
Downward social comparison
comparing with someone worse than us
often makes us feel better about ourselves
Five Criteria of a Good Theory
1) Predictive accuracy
2) Internal coherence
3) Parsimony/Economy
4) Fertility
5) Verifiability
Internal coherence
theory has ideas that logically flow from one another
Parsimony/Economy
a theory is no more complicated than it needs to be
Fertility
a theory suggests new ideas for further study
Verifiability
theory is testable through empirical methods (based on observation)
Positive linear relationship
both variables increase/decrease
variables move together in same direction
Negative linear relationship
one variable increases while the other decreases
Curvilinear relationship
increase in one variable is accompanied by increases and decreases in other variable
No relationship
straight line
What correlations tell us
- variables change together
- predictability (can predict probable value of one variable by knowing value of other variable)
Predictor variable
- X
- variable used to predict
Criterion variable
- Y
- variable whose value is being predicted
Third variable problem
relationship may be driven by action of unmeasured “3rd variable”
why correlation doesn’t equal causation
Directionality problem
what caused what?
Ex: aggression and violent video game playing
Nonexperimental research
- research that observes variables that occur naturally
- most common type=correlational research
Pro: can look at relationships of interest that cannot be investigated otherwise
Con: Can’t infer causation
Experimental research
-manipulation of an IV
-control over extraneous variables
(cannot call it an experiment without random assignment)
Pro: ability to identify/describe causal relationship
Cons: can’t be used if you can’t manipulate variable of interest, tight control over extraneous variables limits generalizability
Extraneous variable
any variable not manipulated in experiment but still may affect outcome
How to control extraneous variables
- hold extraneous variables constant
- randomization
Random assignment
- can’t call study an experiment without it
- can’t make causal inferences without it
Internal validity
- the certainty with which results can be attributed to manipulation of an IV rather than some other variable
- uncontrolled extraneous variables threaten internal validity
External validity
degree to which results can be generalized beyond study sample
(steps to increase external validity often decrease internal validity and vice versa)
Error
fluctuations in measurement
Random error
error that tends to push measurements up and down around exact value
-average of all measurements=close to exact value
Systematic error (bias)
error that tends to push measurements in same direction
-average of all measurements will be > or < exact value
Reliability
stability or consistency of a measure
-ex: if height=6ft, want ruler to read 6ft
Test-retest reliability
measure same participants at two points in time
-correlation between two scores
Internal consistency reliability
measure participants at one point in time
- split half=correlate on half of items with other half
- cronbach’s alpha=correlate each item with every other item, calculate mean of all correlations
Inter-rater reliability
assessed by multiple observers of same behavior
-correlate judgements of raters
Validity
essential that measures are valid indices of phenomenon of interest
Construct validity
extent to which an instrument measures what it claims to measure
-umbrella under which all validity falls
Convergent validity
measure is related to other measures it theoretically should be related to
Discriminant validity
measure does not relate to other measures it theoretically should not relate to
Reliability and validity
- Can be reliable but not valid
- Cannot be valid but not reliable
Illusory correlation
Occurs when we focus on two events that stand out and occur together
Ex: believing that parents having trouble conceiving will have better luck conceiving after adopting a child)
Temporal precedence
Temporal order of events in which cause precedes effect
Cicatrisation of cause and effect
When cause is present the effect occurs but when cause is not present the effect does not occur
Basic research
Answers fundamental questions about nature of behavior
Applied research
Addressed issues in which there are practical problems and potential solutions
Literature reviews
Summarize previous research in a particular area
Meta-analysis
Analyze the results of a number of studies using statistical procedures
Nonmonotonic function vs monotonic function
Monotonic=one direction
Nonmonotonic=relationship that changes direction
Social loafing
Increase in number of people in a group completing a task decreases group effort/productivity
Uncertainty
Implies there is randomness in events (random variability)
Correlational method
Nonexperimental method
Confounding variable
Uncontrolled third variable
Ex post facto
After the fact
Groups are formed on the basis of some actual difference rather than through random assignment
NONEXPERIMENTAL
Participant variables
Characteristics of individuals such as age, gender, ethnic group, nationality
True score
Someone’s real value on a given variable
Measurement error
Distance between true score and measured score
Alternate forms reliability
Administering two different forms of the same test to the same individuals at two points in time
Used to prevent artificially high correlation caused by the participants remembering how they answered the questions the first time
Face validity
Whether the measure appears to accurately assess the intended variable
Content validity
Based on comparing the content of the measure with the universe of content that defines the construct
Ex: professors creating an exam, they have to pull questions from the material they taught (universe)
Predictive validity
Research that uses a measure to predict some future behavior
Concurrent validity
Research that examines the relationship between the measure and a criterion behavior at the same time (concurrently)
Reactivity
Measure is reactive if the awareness of being measured changes the individuals behavior
Nominal
Categories
No numeric scales
Impossible to define any quantitative values or differences between categories
Ex: handedness, college major
Ordinal
Rank ordering
Numeric values limited
Intervals between items is unknown
Ex: letter grades, ranking of restaurants (how many stars)
Interval
Difference between numbers on scale is meaningful
Intervals between numbers are equal in size
No true zero
Ex: temperature, intelligence
Ratio
Have an absolute zero indicating absence of variable being measured
Can form ratios
Ex: reaction time, age, duration of response, weight
