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Vertebrate Zoology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

The Basics

1
Q

Evolution

A

Change through time

This is the “overall” definition; more specific definitions vary

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2
Q

Capital evolution

A

Biological evolution
Change thru time of genetic structure, population, and phenotypes
NOT “people came from monkeys”

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3
Q

Biodiversity

A

Variety of living forms and their habits

Life is abundant; INTELLIGENT life is rare

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4
Q

Anatomy and Physiology

A

Structure and Function

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5
Q

Behavior

A

How animals do thing

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6
Q

Ecology

A

Interactions of animals w/ each other and their physical environments

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7
Q

Molecular biology

A

How molecules within cells interact

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8
Q

Cell biology

A

How cells function

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9
Q

Physiology

A

How tissues/organs of an individual organism function and interact

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10
Q

INTRAspecific Level

A

How individuals within a species interact

Population biology

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11
Q

INTERspecific level

A

How different kinds of organisms interact

Community biology

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12
Q

Scientific theory

A
  • Provides powerful explanation for variety of related phenomena
  • Purpose is to guide scientific inquiry by providing specific predictions
  • Supported by overwhelming evidence from numerous studies (NO logic based evidence can refute it)
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13
Q

Hypothesis

A

A theory WITHOUT any scientific proof

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14
Q

Evolution is a ________

A

Theory

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15
Q

Evolution (capitalized)

A

Biological evolution

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16
Q

Charles Robert Darwin

A

-Born in wealthy family (father religious and medical; Darwin didn’t make it as either)
-Met naturalists that got him interested in nature
-Developed theory of natural selection
~Started research first
-Published “On the Origin of Species” after hearing another scientist was researching natural selection as well

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17
Q

Alfred Russel Wallace

A

-Also researched theory of natural selection (the “other” scientist)

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18
Q

Theory of Natural Selection

A
  • Darwin and Wallace researched INDEPENDENTLY

- Covered in Darwin’s “On the Origin of Species”

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19
Q

Influences on Darwin

A
  • Lamark: 1st sci. explanation of evolution (“Inheritance of acquired characters”); made case that fossils are remains of extinct animals
  • Lyell: Uniformitarianism (same physical laws and geological processes operate now as during Earth’s history)
  • Voyage of HMS Beagle
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20
Q

Voyage of HMS Beagle

A 
Travelled to:
-S. America 
       -Galapagos Islands
-Europe
       -British Isles
-Africa
-Australia
Activities:
-Observed and collected fauna and flora
-Found fossils
-Found seashells in mnts @ 4000m
       -Suggested Earth is 
        dynamic
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21
Q

Galapagos Islands

A

Hugely influential on Darwin’s development of theory of evolution
Full of unique organisms; organisms most similar to those found in S. America
600 miles W of coast of S. America
Darwin spent 5 weeks here

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22
Q

Perpetual Change and Geological Time

A 
The rule to evolution
Earth is NOT static:
      -It is always changing both 
       abiotically and biotically
NOT entropy; we have the sun, huge energy input
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23
Q

Radiometric dating

A

Based on physics, chemistry, and math; very reliable

Challenge: getting samples

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24
Q

Earth is _______________ years old

A

4.6 billion

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25
Q

Evidence of Perpetual Change

A

-Banded Iron Formation in Australia
-Rocks up to 3 bil years old
-Big Island, Hawaii
-Oldest part of island
400,000 years old (7,500
years YOUNGER than the
old rocks)
-Kawaii is the oldest of all
Hawaii’s islands (Oldest
islands are in NW)
-New island coming up SE of
Big Island

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26
Q

Fossil Record

A

Oldest micro fossils: 3.5 billion years
Oldest macro fossils: 650 million years
Most animal phyla present 540 million years ago
MINIMUM AGES

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27
Q

Burgess Shale

A

505 mil years old (Cambrian)

  • Many phyla present long extinct
  • Some extant phyla represented
    - Cnidaria
    - Sponges
    - Arthropods
    - Flatworms
  • “Natural experiment” of evolution
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28
Q

Cambrian Explosion

A
  • New lineages evolving very rapidly
  • Many life forms didn’t persist and died out
  • Another chunk survived and are present in some form today
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29
Q

Extinct

A

No living members

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30
Q

Extant

A

Living branch on tree of life

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31
Q

Taxon/Taxa

A

Life is a taxon (i.e. humans, birds, etc.)

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32
Q

Oldest vertebrates are >__________ years old

A

500 million

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33
Q

Human agriculture is ~________ years old

A

10,000

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34
Q

Human agriculture is about _____________________ as old as the oldest of vertebrates

A
  1. 00002% (two one-hundred thousandths of one percent)

0. 00002% of a mile = 1/3 of a millimeter

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35
Q

____% of all metazoan species that have ever lived on Earth are extinct

A

~99.9

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36
Q

Of these estimated _____ of animal species have been discovered as fossils

A

<0.1%

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37
Q

Fossil record is a ______ sample of what has existed:

a) large
b) moderate
c) minimal

A

c) minimal

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38
Q

Fossil records are biased toward ____________:

a) soft-bodied animals (i.e. worms)
b) hard animals (i.e. mollusks)

A

b) hard animals (i.e. mollusks)

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39
Q

Common Descent

A 
Suggests a single origin of life:
     -All forms of life ultimately 
      descended from a common 
      ancestor via branching of 
      lineages
Overwhelming evidence:
     -Organismal form
     -Cell structure
     -Developmental patterns
     -DNA
An individual is connected by a genetic line to everything on earth
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40
Q

Phylogeny

A

-Structure of life’s history is like a tree
-A tree-like diagram of relationships among taxa
Should actually be “Phylogenetic hypothesis,” since some phylogenies are theoretical and still changing

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41
Q

Nodes

A

Branch points

  • Represent ancestors and speciation events
  • Inferred ancestors
  • Branched points at the nodes represent the speciation events
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42
Q

Branches represent __________

A

Lineages

Could be broad or specific

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43
Q

What determines phylogenetic relationships?

a) DNA (Molecular Data)
b) Morphological data (skeletal structure)
c) Both of these
d) Neither of these

A

c) Both of these
DNA is NOT a definitive way of distinguishing relationships, so sometimes morphological data is favored over molecular data

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44
Q

Cladogram

A
  • A phylogeny based on cladistic methods

- Cladistics are NOT exactly the same as phylogenies; all methods are VARIATIONS of original cladistics method

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45
Q

Branch tips represent ____

A

Species

Lowest level non-reticulating lineage

46
Q

Hybrids are __________

a) Completely normal and abundant
b) The exception, not the norm
c) Both of the above
d) Nonexistant
e) None of the above

A

b) The exception, not the norm

47
Q

Synapomorphy

A

Relationships constructed based on shared derived characters

48
Q

Clade

A

A group defined by synapomorphies
I.e.: Squamata (lizards, snakes, amphisbaenians)
Some ancestor and all of its descendents

49
Q

Synapomorphies defining amniotes

A

-Extraembryonic membranes of amnion, chorion, and allantois; lungs ventilated by negative pressure via the ribs

50
Q

Shared ancestral characters _____ define clades

A

Do NOT

I.e. diapsid skulls do NOT distinguish squamates from other diapsid amniotes

51
Q

Polarity

A

-Directionality of ancestral/derived condition among groups
-Outgroup comparison
-Direction of evolution (gain or loss of any trait)
I.e.: Presence of teeth ancestral for amniotes and therefore lack of teeth derived for birds

52
Q

Monophyletic group

A

Ancestor and ALL descendants

I.e.: Every ancestor is included
Chordates are a clade

53
Q

Paraphyletic group

A

Ancestor and some descendants

I.e.: Showing only SOME of a tree’s branches (makes about as much sense as saying a specific tree branch is not part of that tree)

54
Q

Polyphyletic group

A

Common ancestor NOT included

I.e.: Putting all flying creatures together
Must acknowledge that they aren’t related to not seem like a complete fool (used mainly just for comparison purposes)

55
Q

Family

A

Anything that ends in -idae

56
Q

TRUE OR FALSE: Orangutans, gorillas, and chimpanzees form a monophyletic group.

A

FALSE. Humans are not included, so not all descendants are shown (paraphyletic).

Now, Pongidae is eliminated and orangutans, gorillas, and chimps are all considered Hominidae with humans.

57
Q

Homology

A

-“Same organ in different organisms under every variety of form and function” (Sir Richard Owen)
-Homo = same: Studying the Same Things, the similarities
Example: Forelimbs share homologous elements because they evolved from same original forelimb (fin)

58
Q

Homologous structures

A

Can be macroscopic or at molecular level (proteins, DNA)

59
Q

Analogy

A

Structures with similar function but that do NOT reflect common ancestry

NOT similar ancestry; similar function ONLY

I.e.: Bird wing vs. Butterfly wing
Same function (powered
flight), NOT related
genetically or historically

60
Q

What is a species?

Biological Species Concept

A

Proposed by Mayr in 1940

An interbreeding natural population (or group of populations) that is reproductively isolated from other such groups

  • Population-centered view
  • Interbreeding gene flow
  • A population or group of populations w/ gene flow keeping them cohesive but NO gene flow with other species
  • Something stops different species from breeding with another
61
Q

What is a species?

Evolutionary Species Concept

A

Proposed by Simpson in 1961 and Wiley in 1981

A single lineage of ancestral-descendant populations that maintains its identity from other such lineages and that has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate

  • You get a speciation event and it does NOT go back to another species (NO reticulation)
  • Phylogenetic viewpoint
62
Q

Speciation

A

Formation of new species

63
Q

How does speciation occur?

A

1) Evolution of reproductive barriers

2) Allopatric Speciation

64
Q

Evolution of Reproductive Barriers

A 
Physical:
-I.e. incompatible sexual organs
Physiological:
-I.e. Egg can't fuse w/ sperm
Ecological:
-I.e. different locations/niches
Behavioral:
-I.e. mating call differs &amp; attracts only same-species members
Geographic barriers:
-I.e. Mtn range, isolated island
Endemism/Endemic:
-Found only in a very specific location
65
Q

Allopatric speciation

A

Population separated into two separate groups by geographic barrier - then reproductive barriers can evolve

Most pervasive speciation mechanism

66
Q

Gradualism

A

Major differences in traits among species evolve by accumulation of many small incremental changes over time

Indicates Gradual change

Argues AGAINST sudden appearance of new species and rapid morphological changes
      -Now accepted that new 
       species CAN appear 
       suddenly and rapid morph. 
       changes CAN evolve
67
Q

Punctuated Equilibrium

A

Sudden appearances and changes of species

68
Q

Evolution uses:

a) Gradualism
b) Punctuated equilibrium
c) Both gradualism and punctuated equilibrium
d) Neither

A

c) Both gradualism and punctuated equilibrium

69
Q

Ontogeny

A

Development of organism throughout life

From zygote to death

70
Q

Role of Ontogeny

A

Evolutionary changes in development can result in major differences in an adult organism

71
Q

Heterochrony

A

Evolutionary change in timing of development
Etymology: Different timing

Example: Axolotl keeps gills thru/out life (normal salamanders undergo metamorphosis to live on land; axolotls remain in water and thus in “tadpole” stage)

72
Q

Natural Selection

A

Organisms have great reproductive potential and many more are produced than can survive (Malthus)

Populations fluctuate in size but do not show continuous exponential increase w/o limitations

Not all offspring survive: limited resources (Malthus)

Proposed by Darwin and Wallace (independently)

Supported by ABUNDANT evidence

Describes how populations accrue ‘favorable’ characteristics over evolutionary time
Evidence from artificial selection (i.e. dog breeds)

Supported by observations and inferences

73
Q

Inference: Struggle for existence among individuals in a population that increases w. greater numbers of individuals

Variation is heritable

Inference: Differential survival and reproduction generate new adaptations and species

These are examples of _________:

A

Natural Selection

74
Q

Dog breeds are an example of _________

A

Artificial selection

Certain traits are selected for and specifically bred for

75
Q

Survival of the fittest was proposed by________

A

NOT Darwin; the media

76
Q

Evolutionary Patterns

A

1) Adaptive Radiation
2) Convergence
3) Reduction and Loss
4) Reversal
5) Specialization

77
Q

Adaptive Radiation

A

Evolution of many diverse species from a common ancestor (via multiple allopatric speciation in rapid succession)

Typically associated w/ invasion of areas w/ unoccupied niches

78
Q

Convergence

A

Independent evolution of a similar characteristic in 2 or more taxa

Morphology, physiology, ecology, behavior, etc.

The presence of the similarity is NOT due to common ancestry

79
Q

Convergence or Not?

Turtles and mice both have forelimbs

A

NO

The presence of forelimbs in turtles and mice explained by common ancestry

80
Q

Convergence or Not?

Birds and bats both have wings.

A

YES
Common ancestor did NOT have wings, and birds and bats are NOT closely related, so they evolved wings independently of one another

81
Q

Evolutionary Reduction

A

Some character is reduced in size or prominence

82
Q

Evolutionary Loss

A

Some character is lost

83
Q

Evolutionary Reversal

A

Return to a condition seen in an earlier ancestor

Character that has reverted is called “secondarily derived”

84
Q

Secondarily Derived

A

A character that undergoes evolutionary reversal

85
Q

Specialization

A

Evolutionary modification(s) for a specific biological role

86
Q

Adaptation

A

Current role must be the SAME as what it originally evolved for; a TYPE of specialization

87
Q

T or F:

All adaptations are specializations, but not all specializations are adaptations

A

TRUE

88
Q

What IS Evolution

A

Like a tree
Parts of an organism can be ancestral or derived; not necessarily the entire organism
Organism is the sum of its parts
Unifying theme of biology

89
Q

What is Evolution NOT

A

A ladder

Progress

90
Q

Chordates: Shared Ancestral Characters

A

1) Bilateral symmetry
2) Anteroposterior Body Axis
3) Arrangement of body cavities (coloem)
4) Segmented metamerism
5) Cephalization (having a head with sensory structures)

91
Q

Synapomorphies of Deuterostomes

A

1) Blastopore forms anus
2) Mouth formed from secondary opening
3) Radial cleavage
4) Coelom formed by fusion of enterocoelus pouches

92
Q

Chordata Synapomorphies

A

1) Notocord
2) Single, dorsal, tubular nerve cord
3) Pharyngeal pouches/slits
4) Endostyle
5) Postanal tail

93
Q

Chordata: Notocord

A

Flexible rod-like structure

Ventral to the nerve cord

Role in Locomotion:
-Skeletal axis for muscle attachment to facilitate undulatory movements

94
Q

Chordata: Single, Dorsal, Tubular Nerve Cord

A
  • First part of the endoskeleton to appear in embryo
  • Persists in protochordates (some) and jawless vertebrates
  • Replaced by cartilaginous or bony vertebrae in jawed vertebrates
  • Initially hollow (tube) but mostly fills in during development in most taxa (this is a synapomorphy)
  • Produced by infolding of dorsal ectodermal cells
  • In Vertebrates: Anterior end becomes brain, cord passes through protective neural arches (cartilage or bone)
95
Q

Chordata: Pharyngeal Grooves/Pouches/Slits

A

Formation:

1) Inpocketing of ectoderm (this forms pharyngeal grooves)
2) Outpocketing of adjacent endodermal lining of pharynx (this forms the pharyngeal pouches)

In Aquatic Chordates, inpockets and outpockets fuse to form pharyngeal slits

In Amniotes, pouches produce middle ear cavity, Eustachian tube, and other structures

Pharynx with pharyngeal slits originally evolved as a filter-feeding apparatus (water drawn in through mouth by ciliary action and passes our through slits with food trapped in mucus)

In Aquatic Vertebrates, the pharynx is a respiratory organ (internal gills)
-Pharynx muscularized and contractions drive water flow over highly vascularized pharyngeal arches

96
Q

Chordata: Endostyle

A

Protochordates and lamprey larvae:
-Mucous-secreting organ for trapping food parts. in pharynx
Vertebrates (including ADULT lamprey):
-Thyroid gland derived from endostyle (homologous to endostyle)
-Lamprey is basal vertebrate
—Larval stage: Protochordate-like
—Adult stage: Vertebrate-like
Evidence from homology: Endostyle and thyroid gland both secrete rare iodinated proteins

97
Q

Chordata: Postanal Tail

A

Role in Locomotion:
-Propulsion in water
Associated somatic musculature
Great diversity of form and function in extant taxa

98
Q

Protochordates

A

Urochordata
Cephalochordata

NOT a monophyletic group

It doesn’t include vertebrates, so it doesn’t include all of the descendants: this is an example of a paraphyletic group

99
Q

Protochordates: Urochordata

A

AKA Tunicata (Tunicates) (preferred term)

Notocord (restricted to tail) in larvae disappears during metamorphosis into adult

>3000 species in 3 classes

Found near shore to open ocean habitats

Ascidians (sea squirts) are the best known (>2000 species)

  • -Larvae short-lived, non-feeding
  • -All 5 chordate synapomorphies
  • —Adults retain only pharyngeal slits and endostyle
  • -Adults:
  • –Sessile
  • –Filter feed w/ incurrent and excurrent siphons and mucus-secreting endostyle
  • –Hermaphroditic (both gonads; no genders)
100
Q

Protochordates: Basics of Cephalochordata

A

Small (3-8cm)
Elongate
Laterally Compressed

~30 species

Found in coastal waters w/ sandy bottoms

RESEMBLES hypothesized ancestral chordate (NOT necessarily the common ancestor itself)

Possesses all 5 chordate synapomorphies in clear and simple form as adult

Filter Feeders

Example: Amphioxus

101
Q

Compressed

A

Laterally flattened

Sides are pushed in so that the width of the organism is much more slender than its depth

AKA Laterally Compressed

102
Q

Depressed

A

Dorso-ventrally flattened (like a sting-ray)

Humans are depressed (stomach is ventral, back is dorsal)

103
Q

Cephalochordata: Circulatory System

A

Closed system

NO heart: Blood pumped by contractions of aorta

Colorless blood (no hemoglobin or erythrocytes)

Blood transports nutrients (derived from filter-feeding) but also plays NO role in gas exchange (oxygen attained through diffusion)

104
Q

Physiological explanation: Why is amphioxus small and compressed?

A

Depend COMPLETELY on simple diffusion of oxygen from water into their bodies

Lateral compression allows a molecule of oxygen to travel a shorter distance when diffused into body

Thus, amphioxus CONSTRAINED to small size to allow for effective diffusion

105
Q

What Matters in Diffusion

A

Surface Area

Thickness (THIN is better)

Gradient (how much stuff do you have in one place compared to the other place you want it to go)

106
Q

Cephalochordata: Nervous System

A

Dorsal nerve cord retains tubular structure

Unpaired nerve receptors on sides of body

Brain-like vesicle at anterior end of the nerve cord
—NOT a true brain (true brain is vertebrate synapomorphy)

107
Q

Cephalochordata: Reproduction

A

Sexes separate

Gametes released out of atriopore

EXTERNAL fertilization (fertilization occurs in the environment, NOT internally)

108
Q

Shares characteristics with vertebrate body plan:

A
  • Hepatic cecum (secretes enzymes to digest food)
  • Segmented trunk musculature
  • Basic plan of circulatory system
109
Q

Earliest Known Chordate:

A

Pikaia

  • -Seen in Burgess Shale >500mil yrs ago
  • -Notocord, myotomes, anteroposterior axis
  • -About 2.5-4cm
  • -Known from 114 specimens
  • -Much like extant chordates
  • -Thought to be one of the original chordates
  • -Small like modern-day amphioxus
110
Q

Sister Taxa:

A

Lineages sharing more recent common ancestor with each other than either does with any other lineage

111
Q

Original hypothesis of relationship of chordate tree

A

Cephalochordata and Vertebrata are sister taxa

112
Q

Current hypothesis of relationship of chordate tree

A

Urochordata and Vertebrate are sister taxa

More accepted version

Vertebrate Zoology (16 decks)

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