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Geology 1104 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the estimated age of the universe?

A

13.8 billion years

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2
Q

How many Earth’s worth of resources would our current population require if we were to all live at the American standard of living?

A

4.1

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3
Q

What is the current population of the Earth?

A

7.5 billion

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4
Q

Most of the galaxies in the universe exhibit what kind of shift in the visible light spectrum, indicating that galaxies are moving away from us?

A

Red shift

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5
Q

What is the name of the effect that compresses or expands the wave length of light depending on the direction and speed of an object?

A

Doppler

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6
Q

Which gas makes up the majority of Earth’s atmosphere?

A

Nitrogen

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7
Q

When looking at the composition of the entire Earth, which element is most common?

A

Fe (iron)

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8
Q

What process is predominately responsible for driving plate tectonics?

A

Slab pull

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9
Q

Who first proposed the theory of plate tectonics?

A

Alfred Wegner

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10
Q

What type of mineral is most abundant on Earth?

A

Silicate minerals

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11
Q

What type of bond is the strongest?

A

Covalent

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12
Q

What is the apparent banding or layering within a metamorphic rock called?

A

Foliation

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13
Q

Doppler Effect

A

Shows the universe is expanding; works with sound but also light. Towards = blue, away = red. Bodies in space are red shifted

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14
Q

Nebulae

A

Composed of Helium and Hydrogen gas. Dust grains clump and collide to form planets

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15
Q

Differentiation

A

The process of density separation; allowed Earth to gain atmosphere. The early atmosphere was ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and methane, and the ammonia oxidized to water and nitrogen.

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16
Q

Geodynamo System

A

Inner core: Solid, nickel and iron, not rigidly connected to mantle
Outer core: Liquid, Fe and Ni, pressure causes inner core to be solid. Cooling of the outer core would kill the MOA of plate tectonics (magnetic field)

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17
Q

Declination

A

Difference between geographic and magnetic North

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18
Q

Lithosphere

A

Contains 12 major tectonic plates, predominantly basalt oceanic crust. Continental crust is granitic. Volcanoes and quakes at plate boundary. Oxygen and silicon make up most of the Earth crust and form rocks

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19
Q

Plate Tectonics

A

Evidence: Jigsaw fit of continents, glacial deposits, creatures on different continents.
Modern Evidence: Mid Ocean Ridge

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20
Q

Paleomagnetism

A

Polar reversals are reflected in the rock record

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21
Q

Types of Plate Boundaries

A

Divergent - Plates moving away (Mid Ocean Ridge)
Convergent - Plates move towards each other (Ocean subducts since it’s more dense)
Transform - Plates move sideways past each other
Continent-continent collision responsible for mountain building (Himalayas)

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22
Q

What causes plate movements?

A

Slab pull - Very heavy plate moves crust
Convection
Ridge Push - Pushing down of ridge leads to crust being pushed out and away

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23
Q

Minerals

A

Inorganic, solid, natural, regular crystalline structure. Specifically ordered; a solid with disordered atoms = glass.

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24
Q

Silicates

A

Have Si and O

Quartz, Muscovite, Feldspar

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25
Q

Carbonates

A

Calcite CaCO3

Dolomite

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26
Q

Native Elements

A

Au, Ag, Cu, C

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27
Q

Sulfides

A

Pyrite Fes2

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28
Q

Oxides

A

Hematite Fe2O3

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29
Q

Cystalline structure

A

Based on atomic patterns that are both predictable and repetitive

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30
Q

New Madriol Fault

A

3 magnitude 7s in 1811-1812

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31
Q

Induced Seismicity

A

Wasterwater injection wells causing man-made earthquakes

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32
Q

Magnitude

A

Amount of ground motion resulting from an earthquake

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33
Q

Mercalli Scale

A

Measures intensity - effect on people; used to describe old earthquakes when seismometer equipment was not present

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34
Q

Moment Magnitude

A

Amount of energy released by an earthquake. Measures displacement, rupture area, and strength of rocks

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35
Q

Earthquake Hazards

A

Shearing and rolling from Love and Rayleigh Waves
P waves are fast but aren’t usually damaging
S waves can damage due to shearing

36
Q

Liquefaction

A

Land eventually liquefies after being shaken for a while

37
Q

Aftershocks

A

Crust re-accommodating stress change from earthquake

38
Q

Tsunamis

A

Caused by vertical displacement; usually occur at convergent (reverse) faults, but can also occur at normal faults. 2004 tsunami led to warning system of buoys in the Indian Ocean. Subsidence can cause flooding: Japan’s tsunami changed the length of the Earth’s day

39
Q

Normal Faults

A

These have a crustal extension and rocks above steeply inclined fault surface slip DOWN and over rocks beneath fault surface.
Found at Transform boundaries

40
Q

Reverse Faults

A

These have a crustal compression and Rocks above steeply-inclined fault surface slip UP and over rocks beneath fault surface.
Found at convergent boundaries

41
Q

Thrust Faults

A

are same as reverse faults, but have more gently-inclined surface

42
Q

Strike Slip Faults

A

a fault in which rock strata are displaced mainly in a horizontal direction, parallel to the line of the fault.

43
Q

Japan Tsunami

A

P waves traveled 4 miles per second
Originated Pacific-Eurasian plate
4 miles deep, 60 miles long
Caused by plate tectonics springing upward

44
Q

Crystals

A

External flat faces, form best in open cavities

45
Q

Atom Bonding

A

Lattice atoms are held in place by atomic bonds.

Types:
Covalent
Ionic
Metallic
Van der Waals
46
Q

Covalent Bonds

A

Hold molecules together through the sharing of electrons

47
Q

Ionic Bonds

A

Electron given up to fill outer shell of another element

48
Q

Metallic Bond

A

Nuclei and inner shells float in a sea of free electrons.

Electrons stream through metal if there is electric current.

49
Q

Specific Gravity

A

Related to density; mineral weight over equal weight of water volume

50
Q

Crystal Form

A

Euhedral – Good crystal faces; grown in open cavity.
Anhedral – No crystal faces; grown in tight space.
Subhedral – Between the two.
Face development indicates growth history.
Anhedral crystals common; euhedral less so.

51
Q

Cleavage

A

Tendency to break along planes of weakness.
Cleavage produces flat, shiny surfaces.
Described by number of planes and their angles.
Sometimes mistaken for crystal habit.
Cleavage is through-going; often forms parallel “steps.”
Crystal habit is only on external surfaces.
1, 2, & 3 planes of cleavage possible.

52
Q

Fracture

A

Some minerals lack planes of weakness.
Due to equal molecular bonds in all directions.
These minerals don’t have cleavage; they fracture.
Example: Quartz displays conchoidal fracture.
Shaped like the inside of a clam shell.
Breaks along smooth curved surfaces.
Produces extremely sharp edges.

53
Q

Types of Rocks

A

Igneous - Form from cooling melts
Keys: Interlocking crystals

Sedimentary - Form from lithification of sediments.
Keys: Composed of clasts of other rocks

Metamorphic - Form from the deformation of pre-existing rocks due to heat and pressure
Keys: Foliation (apparent stacking or banding)

54
Q

Stress

A

Force applied to an object. Can be Compressional, Tensile, or Shear

55
Q

Strain

A

Deformation of an object in response to stress.

Elastic Deformation - Returns to original shape after stress is removed
Plastic Deformation - Permanent alteration

56
Q

What causes volcanic eruptions?

A

Geodynamo system

57
Q

Ring of Fire

A

Where the majority of earthquakes and volcanoes occur; massive subduction, many small plates interacting, high speed plate movement

58
Q

Magma

A

Molten rock beneath surface

59
Q

Lava

A

Magma on surface

60
Q

Viscosity

A

Low = fluid
High = rigid
Think of as synonym for “chunky”
Higher heat = low viscosity

61
Q

Silica

A

Low amount = lower viscosity

High amount = higher viscosity

62
Q

Mafic Eruptions

A

Low SiO2, low viscosity, high temp, low gas

63
Q

Felsic Eruptions

A

High SiO2, high viscosity, lower temperature, high gas, explosive

64
Q

Basalt

A

Volcanic rock resulting from mafic eruptions

65
Q

Pillow Basalts

A

Form in water

66
Q

Hawaiian Eruptions

A

Very lava flowy

67
Q

Strombolian Eruptions

A

Fountain

68
Q

Vulcanian Eruptions

A

Essentially a geyser

69
Q

Surtseyan Eruptions

A

Lava erupts into a body of water

70
Q

Plinian Eruptions

A

Big, explosive, mushroom cloud

71
Q

Cinder Cones

A

Small-volume, usually mafic and composed of pumice/scoria. Monogenetic
High amount of gas in eruptions
Step 1: Cinders. Step 2: Lava
Lava seeps out of the side

72
Q

Shield Volcanoes

A

Large, broad, high volume. High fluxes of basaltic lava: polygenetic

73
Q

Fissures

A

Less viscous lava erupts and spreads out from large crack. Example: Mid-Ocean Ridge basaltsCan lead to flood basalts

74
Q

Composite/Strato-Volcanoes

A

Large, steep-sided volcanoes produced from many eruptions of pyroclastics and lava flows. Polygenetic

75
Q

Domes

A

Low volume blisters of high-viscosity, intermediate to felsic magma that ooze to the surface

76
Q

Craters

A

Created as rising magma encounters groundwater; the water flashes to steam and explodes. Monogenetic

77
Q

Calderas

A

Biggest eruptions; multi-vented

78
Q

Magma Sources

A

Divergent Plate Boundaries - Crust pulling apart allows shallow magma to ooze to the surface as a result of decompression melting.

Subduction - Introduces volatiles into the upper mantle (H2O, organic matter, gases) and lowers the melting temperature of magma

79
Q

Hotspots

A

Related to mantle plumes

80
Q

Debris Avalanche

A

High volume volcanic landslide triggered by earthquake, over-steepning or heavy rainfall. Released lateral blast at Mt St Helens

81
Q

Lahar

A

Dense flows of water, ash, mud and rock. Caused by melting snow/glacier; historically most deadly result of volcanoes. Big dangers: long run out distance, moves very fast, low chance of survival

82
Q

Toxic Gases

A

Volcanoes emit toxic gases such as SO2 - Sulfur Dioxide, H2S - Hydrogen Sulfide (Rotten egg smell)

83
Q

Phreatic Explosion

A

Occur when ground water flashed to steam by magma in the subsurface; no fresh material

84
Q

Pyroclastic Flow

A

Dense cloud of ash, lava, hot gases. Moves up to 450 km/hr. Form from a collapsing eruption column or from collapse of a lava dome

85
Q

Secondary Hazards

A

Small earthquakes - Earth rumbles at low frequency (episodic trembling) during volcano quakes
Tsunamis
Starvation: Ash kills crops and livestock

86
Q

Ground Deformation

A

Inflation of change in tilt indicates fresh magma moving in under the volcano. Measurements made with tiltmeters and GPA networks

87
Q

Sulfur Dioxide Measurements

A

COPSIC measures concentration of volcanic gas; increased gas emission correlates with volcanic activity

Geology 1104 (3 decks)

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