Exam 1 Flashcards
A medium is? Give some examples.
A channel through which communication travels:
print, television, radio, internet
Messages are
The text, images, sounds, and videos that are communicated through media.
When we talk about media, we mean? List some examples.
Those messages that we consume or create through the media (mediums).
Ex.) We consume (watch) football game through television. Ex.) We create (post) photos of twin polar bears through Facebook.
Ex.) We consume and create (communicate) with friends through phone.
Newspaper, snapchat, books, ads, etc.
Trends in media consumption showed what?
Showed statistics indicating an increase of the amount of time people spend on the Internet and decrease of it on traditional media.
We talked about (in class)…?
How might playing a violent video game influence us?
How might viewing Photo shopped advertisements influence us?
How might seeing a suffering child influence us?
When we talk about media effects, we mean
How might consuming and creating messages though the media affect
- how we feel
- how we think
- how we behave
- how we interact and communicate
What are the course goals?
Understand social scientific research methods and how to apply them to studying media.
Become more critical consumers and creators of media.
What are the 3 ways of knowing?
Personal experience, authority, science
Personal experience
Direct experience, observation
What are limitations of learning from experience?
- What is accurate for you might not be accurate for everyone.
- We are not always aware of what’s influencing us
Authority
learning from experts, people we trust
What are limitations from learning from authority?
We may be overly credible of experts
We may listen to experts even when they are outside the domain of their expertise
Science
learning based on systematic observation
What are limitations from learning from science?
It only allows us to know general patterns, not about specific cases or individuals.
It assumes there is an objective truth, but some questions (e.g., what is ethical behavior?, what is social justice?, is this a good policy or not?) may not have an objective truth.
Social scientific research applies the scientific approach to knowledge to studying social phenomena. What are some key points to keep in mind with this concept?
Social = people
How people think
How people behave
How people interact
5 characteristics of scientific research
- Scientific research is public
- Scientific research is objective
- Scientific research is empirical
- Science is cumulative
- The goal of science is to predict, explain, and control phenomena
What is the goal of science?
The goal of science is to predict, explain, and control phenomena
Scientific research is public. What does that mean?
It can be replicated (reproduced, repeated)
Public vs. private research
Public research is usually conducted by academics, polling firms
Private research is conducted by corporations, political candidates
Scientific research is objective. What does that mean?
Standard methods increase the odds of eliminating our biases.
Scientific research is empirical. What does that mean?
Observable and measurable, verified by systematic observation rather than common sense or intuition.
Science is cumulative. What does that mean?
Knowledge is built on previous knowledge. This means science can self-correct
What is a theory?
A set statement that identifies key variables, predicts how they are related, and suggests an explanation.
Theories yield falsifiable hypotheses
A variable is anything that can vary (age, gender, hometown, amount of TV watched)
Why do we need scientific research and theories?
People tend to interpret information in a way that confirms their prior beliefs (confirmation bias).
Using systematic observation can help control the influence of our biases.
How are scientific and unscientific ways of knowing different?
Unscientific ways of knowing are based on personal experience, authority, intuition, or habit. Scientific ways of knowing are based on systematic observation.
Why are scientific methods important for studying media effects?
Adhering to scientific methods helps us minimize the influence of our own beliefs or bias. Scientific methods help us develop or refine theories that predict and explain the influence of media.
Correlation does not = ……
causation
Give an example of how correlation does not = causation.
Ex. Watching reality tv does not cause people to tan more.
How do we know what we know?
Experience/Empiricism, authority, science
Social Scientific Research
Applies the scientific approach to knowledge to studying social phenomena
Falsifiable
A statement, hypothesis, or theory has falsifiability if it is contradicted by a basic statement, which, in an eventual successful or failed falsification must respectively correspond to a true or hypothetical observation.
Why do we need scientific research?
Confirmation Bias
Confirmation Bias
People tend to interpret information in a way that confirms their prior beliefs
What are the 3 methods of research?
Content analysis, survey, experiment
Content analysis
The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of media content
Content analysis only describes media content, it does NOT allow us to make inferences about the effects of media content on people
Survey
Sampling from a population, asking questions to describe the occurrence and relationship between variables within that population
A survey does NOT allow us to determine is one variable causes another
Experiment
Allows us to isolate and identify a cause in a controlled experiment
What does it mean to say that content analysis is objective?
Multiple researchers examine the same content and reach the same conclusions
What does it mean to say that content analysis is systematic?
There is a clear set of rules for coding the message content
What does it mean to say that content analysis is quantitative?
Results can be counted, analyzed using statistical tests
Benefits of surveys.
Surveys let us gather descriptive data about people’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors
Surveys let us explore relationships between variables within a population
Variable
something that can vary and is measured in research
Correlation
A statistical tool that describes a relationship between two variables (positive or negative)
Positive correlation
As one variable goes up, the other goes up.
Example: time spent watching TVand BMI (an indicator of body size) are positively correlated.
Negative correlation
As one variable goes up, the other goes down.
Example: time spent watching TV in the week before the testand test scoresare negatively correlated.
No correlation
There is no relationship between the two variables.
Random sample
Each subject in the population has an equal chance of being selected into the treatment or control group.
Allows us to estimate the results for the population based on the results of the sample. Results are generalizable.
Random assignment to the treatment or control group should make the two groups equal on all other factors.
Example: randomly calling telephone numbers to select people for a survey
Non-Random Sample
Each subject in the population does not have an equal chance of being selected
ex. sampling based off convenience, self selection
Benefits of random sampling
R.S allows us to estimate what the response would be if we could survey everyone in a population
Results are generalizable: we can extend the results from out sample to the whole population
We can calculate margin of error
Margin of Error
Margin of error is a measure of how precise a surveys results are.
Margin of Error is a number - the difference between the response from the sample and response from the population
Margin of error (MOE) is the range of the possible responses from the population.
As sample size increases, MOE decreases.
How do you calculate margin of error?
Add and subtract the margin of error from your sample response to get the range of possible results for a population
The larger your sample,
the smaller your margin of error.
Types of surveys
Cross sectional, longitudinal
Cross sectional survey
Occurs at a single point in time and involves a single sample
Longitudinal survey
Data are collected over time
What are the types of longitudinal surveys
Trend study, panel study
Trend study
People who are surveyed at the first point are not the same as the people are who surveyed later (college freshman in 2018, 2019, 2020…)
Panel study
People who are surveyed are exactly the same as the people who are surveyed later
Causality
A relationship between two variables, such that one influences the existence of, or change of, another
Before we can say that one variable causes another, we must…
meet all three criteria for causal relationships.
3 criteria for causality?
- Logical association between variables (Is there a relationship between watching tv w sexual content and having sex?)
- Constant time order - one variable always occurs before the other (Does watching tv occur before having sex?)
- All other variables are ruled out as potential causes.
Experiments
- Test for cause and effect.
- Experimental methods allow us to isolate and identify a cause
- Experiments test whether one variable (ind. variable) is the cause of another variable (dep. variable)
Independent variable = cause
Dependent variable = effect
What are some components to experiments?
Control group, random assignment, treatment group, independent and dependent variable
Why is a control group important while conducting experiments?
Including control groups gives you a baseline for your dependent variable
A control group also controls for how people’s attitudes of behaviors may change merely by participating in the study
People’s behaviors change when they’re being observed. This is called the Hawthorne effect.
Why is random assignment important while conducting an experiment?
Random assignment means everyone who participates in the experiment has an equal chance of being selected for the treatment group OR control group
Random assignment to the treatment or control group should make the two groups equal on all other factors
Statistical significance
An indicator that the relationship between the two variables is meaningful
The typical cutoff for significant in media is p
The difference between two variables did not occur by chance (indicating that the relationship between the two variables is meaningful).
What are the steps on content analysis?
Define your sample –the media content you will analyze
Decide how you will define and measure each variable.
Code the content; analyze results
What are the steps in conducting a survey?
First, establish the population – which is the whole group that we are interested in studying.
Second, select a sample.
Sample
a group of people selected from the population.
In order to calculate margin of error, we need to…
use random sampling techniques.
Calculating Margin of Error:
Warren (52%) =
Trump (48%) =
MOE = +/-3%
NO CLEAR WINNER! The range of values for Warren (49%to 55%) and Trump (45% to 51%) overlap.
Make sure to review the two types of content analysis variables: manifest and latent, covered in Discussion this week.
…………………
3 criteria for causality?
- Logical association between variables (correlation is a criterionfor causality).
2 .Constant time-order (one variable always occurs before the other).
- All other variables are ruled out as potential causes.
In an experiment, the independent variable often has two levels: what are they?
a treatment group and a control group
Treatment group
In a media experiment, the treatment group is the type of media message you’re interested in studying.
Control group
In a media experiment, the control group is identical to the treatment group in all other ways, except that they do NOT view the type of media message you’re interested in studying.
A control group is needed to provide a baseline of comparison.
Also, in order to clarify whether or not the results of the experiment (people’s attitudes or behaviors) are influenced merely by participating in the study, or by realizing that they are being observed (the Hawthorne effect), we need a control group.
ethics of experiment
A limit of experiments is that many questions can’t be tested with experimental methods because it would be unethical to do so.
Explanation
knowing why something occurs the way it does
Understanding
relates to knowing the particular sequence pf casual events
Control
When scientists can accurately predict, explain, and understand a phenomenon
Scientific attitude
a person that would approach the phenomenon of psychic advice with great skepticism
Skeptical attitude
Acknowledging that science can’t answer every question
coder
a person who examines content and classifies it into categories
cohort study
A cohort study is a particular form of longitudinal study that sample a cohort, performing a cross-section at intervals through time
Replication
refers to the fact that the same result could be observed over and over
convergence
refers to the fact that the use of different methods still leads to the same general conclusion
Epidemiological approach
A tool of media effects research - this approach of useful for studying the potential impact of media in the natural world
Useful in medical arena because it is not ethical to do experiments that might cause severe harm
Meta-analysis
A tool of media effects research - a technique that doesn’t involve making observations on a sample of people.
legacy of fear
widespread beliefs that the media were dangerous and that the effects of media messages might pervert and upset the proper social order
Ceiling effect
The ceiling effect is observed when an independent variable no longer has an effect on a dependent variable, or the level above which variance in an independent variable is no longer measurable
The development of social science research methods to study media effects is attributed to:
Rise of social science research
Rise of film
Six Factors leading to the rise of social science research
- Industrialization
- Increase in education
- Modernization
- Population growth, especially in cities and manufacturing hubs
- Immigration
- Development of statistics
Modernization
cultural or social changes due to industrialization
industrialization
a change in the mode of production, agriculture to manufacturing
Mass Society idea
This idea was based on the belief that society had shifted from a small-community based society to a mass society.
In a mass society, people have weaker social ties and are less likely to interact with each other.
In the mass society, people are easily influenced by institutions (corporation, mass media, etc.)
People share similar values, which are disseminated by the mass media
The Powerful Effects Model
Prediction: Media messages will exert powerful, relatively uniform effects on everyone who processes them.
This was an important assumption of the mass society concept
Also called hypodermic needle modelor magic bullet theory
Payne Fund studies
1929-1932
First scientific studies of mass media effects.
Funded by a private foundation, but the research was conducted by university psychologists, sociologists, and educators.
Used content analyses, experiments, surveys, and interviews (e.g., measured sweat (galvanic skin response) during watching romance movie).
Some findings based on empiricism/personal experience –asked people to reflect on how media had affected them.
Findings used to justify prior conclusionthat film industry should be held responsible for negative influences of media on children.
The Princeton Study - research question
Did everyone in New Jerseywho heard War of the Worldsreact in the same way?
The Princeton Study - findings
Overall, people trusted the radio as an authority.
However, the study also found associations between believing the War of the Worlds and other personality and demographic variables
People who believed the show was realwere also 1) less critical, 2) less self-confident, and/or 3) had strong religious beliefs
This evidence indicates that individuals react differently to mass media messages
The People’s Choice Study
During the 1940 Presidential election, the study was conducted in Erie County, Ohio.
A longitudinal survey of the same 600 voters seventimes throughout the campaign (this is called a panel study).
Finding: the exposure to the campaign messages did not change/convert voters’ intention to vote for a candidate.
However, the study also found that the exposure to the messages assured voters that their choice was correct.
In other words, media reinforced people’s attitudes but did not change or convert them.
Selective Exposure
- People are motivated to expose themselves to messages with which they already agree.
- Also, we are motivated to avoid messages that we find disagreeable.
- Our tendency to expose ourselves to agreeable messages or to avoid disagreeable messages limits the potential effects of media by limiting the content we consume.
Two-Step Flow
Prediction: media do not influence people directly; ideas flow from the media to opinion leaders, then to the general public.
Theory was tested in the Decatur study, which surveyed a random sample of 900 women.
Opinion Leaders have the following characteristics:
Active media user/consumer
Held in high esteem by their communities
Willing to share their opinion and give advice
Usually considered an expert in at least one domain(e.g., politics, sports)
WWII Propaganda Films
U.S. Gov. produced films promoting U. S. involvement in WWII.
Goals of the films were to provoke positive attitudes toward U.S. involvement and to motivate soldiers.
The films were tested in an experiment with a sample of recently enlisted U. S. soldiers.
Although knowledge increased in the treatment group, soldiers’ attitudes and motivation did not change.
Ceiling effect in WWII Propaganda Films
level of motivation of the soldiers was already as high as it could get, so media could not change soldiers’ attitudes or motivation.
Limited effects perspective
Media have little to no effect. A reaction to the powerful effects model.
Media have an effect under certain conditions, but they do not influence everyone equally or in the same way.
Effects of the media differed depending on the characteristics of 1) medium, 2) message, 3) individual, and 4) community.
4 Types of Mass Media Effects
•Macro level vs. micro level
•Content specific vs. diffuse general
•Cognitive vs. attitudes vs. behavior change
•Alteration vs. stabilization of opinion
(REVIEW THESE IN BOOK)
Breaking down diffusions of innovations:
- An Innovation is…
- Diffusion is…
Innovation: An idea, practice, or object perceived as new by an individual
Diffusion: The process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among members of a social system.
An innovation spreads throughout society in a predictable pattern is represented on a graph as
The S curve
Iowa Hybrid Corn Seed Study: background
▪Hybrid seed was a new idea; became available in 1928
▪It increased corn yields and could withstand drought
▪Iowa State researchers studied innovation patterns of farmers
Iowa Hybrid Corn Seed Study:
By 1941, the corn had been adopted by almost 100% of Iowa farmers. It took 13 years to adopt this new seed innovation…
Why didn’t people adopt it more quickly?
▪Hybrid corn was expensive
▪Farmers weren’t used to new practices
▪Emotional attachment to old practices
Diffusion is influenced by:
- Incentives for adoption
- Self-efficacy
- Status considerations
- Personal values/beliefs
How do we make adoption decisions? 5-Stages of Adoption
- Knowledge - First, we are exposed to an innovation’s existence and start to understand how it functions
- Persuasion - We form a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the innovation
- Decision - We engage in activities that lead to a choice to adopt or reject the innovation
- Implementation - We put the innovation to use!
- Confirmation - We seek reinforcement for our decision
Innovators
First to adopt 2.5% ▪On the cutting edge ▪Ready to try new things ▪Communicate across geographical distances ▪Multicultural group
Early adopters
Larger group than Innovators 13.5% ▪Usually opinion leaders ▪More local/less multicultural ▪Heavy media users ▪Very willing to try new innovations ▪Well respected in their communities
Early Majority
Stops at the dead center of normal S-Curve 34%
▪Don’t like to adopt right away
▪Like to deliberate before deciding
▪When they adopt they legitimize an innovation & show the usefulness of an innovation
The late majority
Other half of the S-Curve 34%
▪Skeptical and cautious
▪Wait until most people have adopted
▪Often influenced by peer/social pressure
The Larggards
16% ▪Last to adopt ▪Tied to the past ▪Traditional ▪Reluctant to try new things `▪Sometimes can take so much time the innovation becomes outdated
Applications of the theory
Marketing/Advertising/PR
Political campaigns/policy
Health and Science
Effects of media influenced by characteristics of
The medium
The message
The individual
The community
Media have influence, but they do not…..
influence everyone equally or in the same way
Diffusion of Innovations
A theory that predicts innovations will diffuse, or spread, thought society in a predictable pattern.
Channel of Communication in Hybrid Corn Study
Interpersonal conversations with neighbors, salespersons we most influential
Mass media
Everett Rogers (1931-2004)
Grew up on family farm in Caroll, Iowa
Went to ISU - ag. degree
