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Human Factors Psych > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is human factors?

A

The science of understanding the properties of human capability and limitations, and applying this understanding to the design, development, and deployment of systems and services

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2
Q

Affordances

A

Relationship between the properties of a physical object and the capabilities of the human that determine how the object could possibly be used

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3
Q

example of affordances:

A

teapot

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4
Q

What is the best type of research for HF?

A

use-inspired basic research

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5
Q

goals of science

A

description, prediction, explanation/understanding

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6
Q

benefits of theory

A

Gives guidance for specific real-world problem when there are no data
Provides quantitative predictions of the type demanded by engineers and designers
Allows us to recognize relations between problems that seem unrelated on the surface
Can be used cheaply and effectively to aid system design

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7
Q

operational definition of a variable

A

techniques the researcher uses in order to measure or manipulate it

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8
Q

independent variable

A

The variables that are manipulated or chosen by the researcher

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9
Q

dependent variable

A

The variables that are measured by the researcher

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10
Q

example of differences in physical characteristics

A

handedness, posture, grip strength, arm length

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11
Q

examples of cognitive differences

A

introverted/extroverted, spatial ability, mental illness, critical thinking, memory, personality

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12
Q

examples of perceptual differences

A

depth perception, loss of physical sensation, hearing problems, contrast sensitivity, visual acuity

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13
Q

reliability

A

The consistency of measurements

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14
Q

validity

A

The degree to which an experiment, a procedure, or a measurement represents what it is supposed to represent

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15
Q

what type of validity is this: does the measure that is employed actually measure the construct it is intended to measure?

A

construct validity

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16
Q

what type of validity is this: can the relations observed can be attributed with a high degree of confidence to the variables of interest? i.e., the ability to draw conclusions about causal relationships from our data.

A

internal validity

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17
Q

what type of validity is this: can the results or the principles derived from the results can be generalized to a variety of other settings?

A

external validity

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18
Q

what type of validity is this: do the behaviors observed in the study reflect the behaviors that actually occur in a natural setting?

A

ecological validity

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19
Q

types of research methods

A

descriptive, correlation/differential, experimental

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20
Q

descriptive research method

A

When you want to examine a situation that cannot be replicated
You are unable to exercise any control over the events under the investigation
Control can lead to a loss of ecological and external validity

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21
Q

measurement issues with naturalistic observations/ethnographic methods

A

Observations can be recorded at the time they are made or later
Content and amount of detail in observations vary
Length of time during which observations are made can be short or long
Observations can vary in terms of the amount of inference, or degree of interpretation, that is required to classify events into measurement categories

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22
Q

surveys and questionnaires

A

The best way to begin addressing a problem by asking people in the natural environment

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23
Q

interviews and focus groups

A

Structured and unstructured interviews with users at any phase of the research process and for a variety of purposes
Do not work well for discovering specific usability problems in a system

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24
Q

defining features of experimental research

A

Test a hypothesis that makes a causal statement about the relation among variables
Compare a dependent measure at at least two levels of an independent variable
Randomly assign people to experimental conditions to make sure that the effects of many potentially confounding factors are distributed equally across conditions

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25
basic designs of experimental research
between subjects, within subjects
26
between subjects design
Two or more groups of people are tested and each group received only one of the treatment conditions of the independent variable Typically random assignment Matched designs are better
27
within subjects design
Use the same participants in each condition Increases sensitivity of the design (more likely to find significant effects) Reduces the number of participants needed
28
drawbacks of within subjects design
Carryover effect: previously received treatment conditions influence a subject’s performance on subsequent conditions Practice/Fatigue effects: increase/decrease in performance due to experience
29
which is the better design to use? Why?
experimental | optimizes internal validity
30
design involves:
Designing new products Modifying existing products Designing environments Safety Develop training programs or instruction manuals Organizational development and restructuring
31
usability/user-centered design
A set of techniques, processes, methods, and procedures for designing usable products and systems A philosophy of placing the user at the center of the process
32
three principles of UCD
``` An early focus on the users and their tasks Empirical measurement of product usage Iterative design, in which a product is 1. Designed 2. Tested 3. Modified ```
33
learnability
make it easier to learn
34
memorability
make it easier to remember
35
efficiency
increase speed and accuracy of use
36
low error rate
reduce the number of errors
37
satisfaction
increase the user’s satisfaction with the system
38
Discoverability
make possible actions obvious
39
7 principles for transforming difficult tasks into simple ones
``` Knowledge in the World + Head Simplify the Structure of Tasks Make Things Visible Get the Mapping Right Exploit the Power of Constraints Design for Error Standardize ```
40
knowledge in the world
Sources of information outside of the individual
41
examples of knowledge in the world:
Maps, signposts, labels, recipes, speedometer in a car
42
knowledge in the head
Information from the world that has been internalized | example: affordances
43
simplify the structure of tasks
Provide simple mental aids (warning labels) Manage visible information (speedometers) Change the nature of the task (scanning bar code instead of typing in a number) -Making a task too simple can cause the user to lose some control of the system
44
feedback
When a user interacts with a system, the system should provide information that the interaction was successful or an error was made
45
gulf of evaluation
The degree to which the system provides representations that can be directly perceived and interpreted in terms of the expectations and intentions of the user
46
gulf of execution
The gape between the user’s goal of action and the means to execute that goal
47
response compatibility
Movement of control should match outcome goal
48
constraints
used to prevent error affordances forcing function
49
design for error
People will make errors Make it easy to recover from them! Design around them when possible
50
standardize
playing off information that people already have
51
front end analysis
Who are the system users? What are the major functions of the system? What are the environmental conditions? What are user preferences and requirements?
52
user analysis
who are your users?
53
function analysis
What functions should be performed by the system? | Functions represent a general goal, not the actual tasks
54
task analysis
Should include - Functions of system - More specific tasks to be performed - Concurrent activities
55
environment analysis
Where will the tasks be completed and under what conditions?
56
heuristic evalutation
Should be done by several people to compare results Not very scientific Good to get started
57
usability testing
Have users interact with a system to identify flaws | Typically a functional product
58
usability testing is conducted by:
``` Giving the user a scenario and a task to complete Videotape Think aloud protocol Answer questions Debrief/ questionnaire ```
59
how is data collected for usability testing?
Time to complete task Errors Comments
60
iterative design
repeat the process in a more direct manner
61
mistake
errors in planning of action Intended behavior is inappropriate under the circumstances A person makes a poor decision, misclassifies a situation, or fails to take all the relevant factors into account
62
what type of error is this example? deciding not to bring an umbrella with you to campus because you thought it wouldn’t rain (it did)
mistake
63
slip
failure in execution of action Intended behavior is appropriate, but is not carried out correctly, i.e. the user has the right intention but does the wrong thing Are especially likely to occur when a familiar or automatic behavior must be inhibited
64
what type of error is this: deciding to go to the grocery store on the way home, and then realizing when you get home that you never made the turnoff for the store
slip
65
lapses
intended action is forgotten and not carried out | The result of memory failures such as losing track of your place in a sequence of actions
66
violations
intentional choice to disobey rule or procedure (without the intention to cause harm) Can occur because of organizational emphasis on costs or productivity instead of safety
67
what is this error: not wearing safety gloves because they get in the way
violation
68
what is this error: Intending to bring an umbrella with you and forgetting
lapse
69
mode error
action is appropriate in one system mode, but is carried out in a different mode
70
error of omission
the user fails to perform the required action
71
error of commission
the user performs an inappropriate action
72
timing error
performs an action too early/too late
73
sequence error
performs the steps in the wrong order
74
selection error
uses the wrong control
75
input error
information from the sensory and perceptual processes
76
mediation error
cognitive processes that translate between perception and action
77
output error
due to the selection and execution of physical responses
78
recoverable
can be corrected and consequences minimized
79
non-recoverable
system failure is inevitable
80
operating error
a system is not used according to correct procedure
81
design error
system designer creates an error-likely situation by failing to consider human tendencies or limitations
82
designing for error
Know that errors will occur and build error-tolerant systems; avoid systems where consequential actions are irreversible
83
stressor
Is not an inherent characteristic of the human/machine system Is not inherent in the information to be processed Is (usually) expected to degrade system performance
84
environmental stressors
may include noise, extreme temperature, vibration, poor light
85
psychological stressors
might include anxiety, frustration, fatigue
86
arousal
Arousal can be thought of as the general energy level of the operator
87
does stress cause more or less arousal?
more
88
Yerkes Dodson Law
The law dictates that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point
89
Cognitive tunneling
Narrows attention to focus on information that is perceived as most task relevant
90
how does stress reduce working memory?
Consequences are worse for complex tasks, which tend to rely more on working memory Can prevent effective training and learning
91
how does stress affect decision making?
May encourage shift away from slow, deliberative decision making toward faster, more intuitive strategies May make people more or less risk averse
92
Stress produces response perseveration
Encourages people to rely on familiar or recently-used actions People may continue to make the same response even though it has detrimental consequences Discourages creative thinking and generation of new strategies or action plans
93
cognitive narrowing
Discourages creative thinking and generation of new strategies or action plans
94
reducing negative effects of stressors
Design tasks & displays to avoid exacerbating cognitive effects of stress Provide knowledge of and control over stressors
95
swiss cheese model
Human systems can be thought to exist as a layered series of slices of cheese -More slices, more lines of defense against error Holes in the slices represent active failures, or weaknesses in parts of the system For an error to occur, multiple weaknesses must line up
96
human information processing
Characterizes the human as a communication system that receives input from the environment, acts on that input, and then outputs a response back to the environment Used to develop models that describe the flow of information in the human
97
three stage model
Allows us to examine performance in terms of the characteristics and limitations of the three stages perception->cognition->action
98
perceptual stage
Processes that operate from the stimulation of the sensory organs Can occur without the person being aware of the processes involved in detection, discrimination, and identification
99
cognitive stage
Identifies or classifies the stimulus Begins to operate to determine an appropriate response May include retrieval of information from memory, comparison of displayed items, comparison of items and memory, arithmetic operations, and decision-making Cognitive limitations (amount of cognitive resources) can cause human error
100
action stage
An overt response (if required) is selected, programmed, and executed First, it chooses the most appropriate response Then the response is translated into a set of neuromuscular commands Then the commands are executed
101
sensory memory
acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses and is constantly being overwritten by new information
102
Information is passed from sensory memory into working memory by _____
attention
103
working memory
is a temporary memory system that you use in order to help you do other complicated cognitive tasks fragile
104
phonological loop
stores the sound of language
105
visuo-spatial sketchpad
stores visual and spatial information
106
encoding
moving things to long term memory
107
data limited processing
The information input to a stage is degraded or imperfect
108
resource limited processing
The system is not powerful enough to perform the operations required for a task efficiently
109
structurally limited processing
Inability of one system to perform several operations at once
110
detectability
the absolute limits of the sensory systems to provide information that a stimulus is present
111
discriminability
the ability to determine that two stimuli differ from each other
112
pyschophysical scaling
discovering the relation between perceived magnitude and physical magnitude
113
absolute threshold
Smallest amount of intensity needed for a person to notice a stimulus
114
difference threshold
Smallest amount of difference needed for a person to perceive two stimuli as different
115
signal detection
Observer is required to discriminate trials on which the stimulus is present from trials on which it is not Addresses response bias by comparing ‘hits’ and ‘false alarms’ when there are different probabilities of the signal being present
116
Stevens' Law
``` The relationship between physical intensity and psychological magnitude (perceived magnitude) S is (reported) sensory experience a is a constant I is physical intensity n is an exponent that varies from different senses ```
117
reaction time
the amount of time between the occurrence of an event and a person’s response.
118
simple reaction time
a single response is made after the action occurs | SRTs in response to auditory stimuli are usually a little faster than SRTs in response to visual stimuli
119
recognition reaction time
a single response is made after some stimuli (the “memory set”), but not after others (the “distractor set”)
120
choice reaction time
more than one response can be made and the correct response depends on the stimulus that occurs more than one response can be made and the correct response depends on the stimulus that occurs

Human Factors Psych (2 decks)

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