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Human Factors Psych > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is human factors?

A

The science of understanding the properties of human capability and limitations, and applying this understanding to the design, development, and deployment of systems and services

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2
Q

Affordances

A

Relationship between the properties of a physical object and the capabilities of the human that determine how the object could possibly be used

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3
Q

example of affordances:

A

teapot

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4
Q

What is the best type of research for HF?

A

use-inspired basic research

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5
Q

goals of science

A

description, prediction, explanation/understanding

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6
Q

benefits of theory

A

Gives guidance for specific real-world problem when there are no data
Provides quantitative predictions of the type demanded by engineers and designers
Allows us to recognize relations between problems that seem unrelated on the surface
Can be used cheaply and effectively to aid system design

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7
Q

operational definition of a variable

A

techniques the researcher uses in order to measure or manipulate it

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8
Q

independent variable

A

The variables that are manipulated or chosen by the researcher

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9
Q

dependent variable

A

The variables that are measured by the researcher

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10
Q

example of differences in physical characteristics

A

handedness, posture, grip strength, arm length

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11
Q

examples of cognitive differences

A

introverted/extroverted, spatial ability, mental illness, critical thinking, memory, personality

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12
Q

examples of perceptual differences

A

depth perception, loss of physical sensation, hearing problems, contrast sensitivity, visual acuity

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13
Q

reliability

A

The consistency of measurements

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14
Q

validity

A

The degree to which an experiment, a procedure, or a measurement represents what it is supposed to represent

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15
Q

what type of validity is this: does the measure that is employed actually measure the construct it is intended to measure?

A

construct validity

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16
Q

what type of validity is this: can the relations observed can be attributed with a high degree of confidence to the variables of interest? i.e., the ability to draw conclusions about causal relationships from our data.

A

internal validity

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17
Q

what type of validity is this: can the results or the principles derived from the results can be generalized to a variety of other settings?

A

external validity

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18
Q

what type of validity is this: do the behaviors observed in the study reflect the behaviors that actually occur in a natural setting?

A

ecological validity

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19
Q

types of research methods

A

descriptive, correlation/differential, experimental

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20
Q

descriptive research method

A

When you want to examine a situation that cannot be replicated
You are unable to exercise any control over the events under the investigation
Control can lead to a loss of ecological and external validity

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21
Q

measurement issues with naturalistic observations/ethnographic methods

A

Observations can be recorded at the time they are made or later
Content and amount of detail in observations vary
Length of time during which observations are made can be short or long
Observations can vary in terms of the amount of inference, or degree of interpretation, that is required to classify events into measurement categories

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22
Q

surveys and questionnaires

A

The best way to begin addressing a problem by asking people in the natural environment

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23
Q

interviews and focus groups

A

Structured and unstructured interviews with users at any phase of the research process and for a variety of purposes
Do not work well for discovering specific usability problems in a system

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24
Q

defining features of experimental research

A

Test a hypothesis that makes a causal statement about the relation among variables
Compare a dependent measure at at least two levels of an independent variable
Randomly assign people to experimental conditions to make sure that the effects of many potentially confounding factors are distributed equally across conditions

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25
Q

basic designs of experimental research

A

between subjects, within subjects

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26
Q

between subjects design

A

Two or more groups of people are tested and each group received only one of the treatment conditions of the independent variable
Typically random assignment
Matched designs are better

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27
Q

within subjects design

A

Use the same participants in each condition
Increases sensitivity of the design (more likely to find significant effects)
Reduces the number of participants needed

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28
Q

drawbacks of within subjects design

A

Carryover effect: previously received treatment conditions influence a subject’s performance on subsequent conditions
Practice/Fatigue effects: increase/decrease in performance due to experience

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29
Q

which is the better design to use? Why?

A

experimental

optimizes internal validity

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30
Q

design involves:

A

Designing new products
Modifying existing products
Designing environments
Safety
Develop training programs or instruction manuals
Organizational development and restructuring

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31
Q

usability/user-centered design

A

A set of techniques, processes, methods, and procedures for designing usable products and systems
A philosophy of placing the user at the center of the process

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32
Q

three principles of UCD

A 
An early focus on the users and their tasks
Empirical measurement of product usage
Iterative design, in which a product is
1. Designed
2. Tested
3. Modified
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33
Q

learnability

A

make it easier to learn

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34
Q

memorability

A

make it easier to remember

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35
Q

efficiency

A

increase speed and accuracy of use

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36
Q

low error rate

A

reduce the number of errors

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37
Q

satisfaction

A

increase the user’s satisfaction with the system

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38
Q

Discoverability

A

make possible actions obvious

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39
Q

7 principles for transforming difficult tasks into simple ones

A 
Knowledge in the World + Head
Simplify the Structure of Tasks
Make Things Visible
Get the Mapping Right
Exploit the Power of Constraints
Design for Error
Standardize
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40
Q

knowledge in the world

A

Sources of information outside of the individual

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41
Q

examples of knowledge in the world:

A

Maps, signposts, labels, recipes, speedometer in a car

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42
Q

knowledge in the head

A

Information from the world that has been internalized

example: affordances

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43
Q

simplify the structure of tasks

A

Provide simple mental aids (warning labels)
Manage visible information (speedometers)
Change the nature of the task (scanning bar code instead of typing in a number)
-Making a task too simple can cause the user to lose some control of the system

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44
Q

feedback

A

When a user interacts with a system, the system should provide information that the interaction was successful or an error was made

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45
Q

gulf of evaluation

A

The degree to which the system provides representations that can be directly perceived and interpreted in terms of the expectations and intentions of the user

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46
Q

gulf of execution

A

The gape between the user’s goal of action and the means to execute that goal

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47
Q

response compatibility

A

Movement of control should match outcome goal

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48
Q

constraints

A

used to prevent error
affordances
forcing function

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49
Q

design for error

A

People will make errors
Make it easy to recover from them!
Design around them when possible

50
Q

standardize

A

playing off information that people already have

51
Q

front end analysis

A

Who are the system users?
What are the major functions of the system?
What are the environmental conditions?
What are user preferences and requirements?

52
Q

user analysis

A

who are your users?

53
Q

function analysis

A

What functions should be performed by the system?

Functions represent a general goal, not the actual tasks

54
Q

task analysis

A

Should include

  • Functions of system
  • More specific tasks to be performed
  • Concurrent activities
55
Q

environment analysis

A

Where will the tasks be completed and under what conditions?

56
Q

heuristic evalutation

A

Should be done by several people to compare results
Not very scientific
Good to get started

57
Q

usability testing

A

Have users interact with a system to identify flaws

Typically a functional product

58
Q

usability testing is conducted by:

A 
Giving the user a scenario and a task to complete
Videotape
Think aloud protocol
Answer questions
Debrief/ questionnaire
59
Q

how is data collected for usability testing?

A

Time to complete task
Errors
Comments

60
Q

iterative design

A

repeat the process in a more direct manner

61
Q

mistake

A

errors in planning of action
Intended behavior is inappropriate under the circumstances
A person makes a poor decision, misclassifies a situation, or fails to take all the relevant factors into account

62
Q

what type of error is this example? deciding not to bring an umbrella with you to campus because you thought it wouldn’t rain (it did)

A

mistake

63
Q

slip

A

failure in execution of action
Intended behavior is appropriate, but is not carried out correctly, i.e. the user has the right intention but does the wrong thing
Are especially likely to occur when a familiar or automatic behavior must be inhibited

64
Q

what type of error is this: deciding to go to the grocery store on the way home, and then realizing when you get home that you never made the turnoff for the store

A

slip

65
Q

lapses

A

intended action is forgotten and not carried out

The result of memory failures such as losing track of your place in a sequence of actions

66
Q

violations

A

intentional choice to disobey rule or procedure (without the intention to cause harm)
Can occur because of organizational emphasis on costs or productivity instead of safety

67
Q

what is this error: not wearing safety gloves because they get in the way

A

violation

68
Q

what is this error: Intending to bring an umbrella with you and forgetting

A

lapse

69
Q

mode error

A

action is appropriate in one system mode, but is carried out in a different mode

70
Q

error of omission

A

the user fails to perform the required action

71
Q

error of commission

A

the user performs an inappropriate action

72
Q

timing error

A

performs an action too early/too late

73
Q

sequence error

A

performs the steps in the wrong order

74
Q

selection error

A

uses the wrong control

75
Q

input error

A

information from the sensory and perceptual processes

76
Q

mediation error

A

cognitive processes that translate between perception and action

77
Q

output error

A

due to the selection and execution of physical responses

78
Q

recoverable

A

can be corrected and consequences minimized

79
Q

non-recoverable

A

system failure is inevitable

80
Q

operating error

A

a system is not used according to correct procedure

81
Q

design error

A

system designer creates an error-likely situation by failing to consider human tendencies or limitations

82
Q

designing for error

A

Know that errors will occur and build error-tolerant systems; avoid systems where consequential actions are irreversible

83
Q

stressor

A

Is not an inherent characteristic of the human/machine system
Is not inherent in the information to be processed
Is (usually) expected to degrade system performance

84
Q

environmental stressors

A

may include noise, extreme temperature, vibration, poor light

85
Q

psychological stressors

A

might include anxiety, frustration, fatigue

86
Q

arousal

A

Arousal can be thought of as the general energy level of the operator

87
Q

does stress cause more or less arousal?

A

more

88
Q

Yerkes Dodson Law

A

The law dictates that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point

89
Q

Cognitive tunneling

A

Narrows attention to focus on information that is perceived as most task relevant

90
Q

how does stress reduce working memory?

A

Consequences are worse for complex tasks, which tend to rely more on working memory
Can prevent effective training and learning

91
Q

how does stress affect decision making?

A

May encourage shift away from slow, deliberative decision making toward faster, more intuitive strategies
May make people more or less risk averse

92
Q

Stress produces response perseveration

A

Encourages people to rely on familiar or recently-used actions
People may continue to make the same response even though it has detrimental consequences
Discourages creative thinking and generation of new strategies or action plans

93
Q

cognitive narrowing

A

Discourages creative thinking and generation of new strategies or action plans

94
Q

reducing negative effects of stressors

A

Design tasks & displays to avoid exacerbating cognitive effects of stress
Provide knowledge of and control over stressors

95
Q

swiss cheese model

A

Human systems can be thought to exist as a layered series of slices of cheese
-More slices, more lines of defense against error
Holes in the slices represent active failures, or weaknesses in parts of the system
For an error to occur, multiple weaknesses must line up

96
Q

human information processing

A

Characterizes the human as a communication system that receives input from the environment, acts on that input, and then outputs a response back to the environment
Used to develop models that describe the flow of information in the human

97
Q

three stage model

A

Allows us to examine performance in terms of the characteristics and limitations of the three stages
perception->cognition->action

98
Q

perceptual stage

A

Processes that operate from the stimulation of the sensory organs
Can occur without the person being aware of the processes involved in detection, discrimination, and identification

99
Q

cognitive stage

A

Identifies or classifies the stimulus
Begins to operate to determine an appropriate response
May include retrieval of information from memory, comparison of displayed items, comparison of items and memory, arithmetic operations, and decision-making
Cognitive limitations (amount of cognitive resources) can cause human error

100
Q

action stage

A

An overt response (if required) is selected, programmed, and executed
First, it chooses the most appropriate response
Then the response is translated into a set of neuromuscular commands
Then the commands are executed

101
Q

sensory memory

A

acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses and is constantly being overwritten by new information

102
Q

Information is passed from sensory memory into working memory by _____

A

attention

103
Q

working memory

A

is a temporary memory system that you use in order to help you do other complicated cognitive tasks
fragile

104
Q

phonological loop

A

stores the sound of language

105
Q

visuo-spatial sketchpad

A

stores visual and spatial information

106
Q

encoding

A

moving things to long term memory

107
Q

data limited processing

A

The information input to a stage is degraded or imperfect

108
Q

resource limited processing

A

The system is not powerful enough to perform the operations required for a task efficiently

109
Q

structurally limited processing

A

Inability of one system to perform several operations at once

110
Q

detectability

A

the absolute limits of the sensory systems to provide information that a stimulus is present

111
Q

discriminability

A

the ability to determine that two stimuli differ from each other

112
Q

pyschophysical scaling

A

discovering the relation between perceived magnitude and physical magnitude

113
Q

absolute threshold

A

Smallest amount of intensity needed for a person to notice a stimulus

114
Q

difference threshold

A

Smallest amount of difference needed for a person to perceive two stimuli as different

115
Q

signal detection

A

Observer is required to discriminate trials on which the stimulus is present from trials on which it is not
Addresses response bias by comparing ‘hits’ and ‘false alarms’ when there are different probabilities of the signal being present

116
Q

Stevens’ Law

A 
The relationship between physical intensity and psychological magnitude (perceived magnitude)
	S is (reported) sensory experience
	a is a constant
	I is physical intensity
	n is an exponent that varies from different senses
117
Q

reaction time

A

the amount of time between the occurrence of an event and a person’s response.

118
Q

simple reaction time

A

a single response is made after the action occurs

SRTs in response to auditory stimuli are usually a little faster than SRTs in response to visual stimuli

119
Q

recognition reaction time

A

a single response is made after some stimuli (the “memory set”), but not after others (the “distractor set”)

120
Q

choice reaction time

A

more than one response can be made and the correct response depends on the stimulus that occurs more than one response can be made and the correct response depends on the stimulus that occurs

Human Factors Psych (2 decks)

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