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Geology 101 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is geology?

A

The study of Earth including:
composition
behavior
history

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2
Q

Expanding Universe Theory

A

Hubble observed all light from all galaxies exhibits red shift

Means all galaxies are moving away from the Earth very quickly

Creates the basis for big bang

Universe has been expanding since the big bang

Assumption of the law is that we are a stationary observers

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3
Q

Big Bang Theory

A

A cataclysmic explosion that scientists suggest represent the formation of the universe

before this, all matter and energy was packed into one volumeless point

There was no big “explosion” from single point, “simultaneous appearance of space everywhere in the universe”
Big Bang theory doesn’t explain what universe expands into
Big Bang theory doesn’t address what caused expansion to begin

during first second= protons and neutrons form

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4
Q

Nebular Theory

A

The protoplanetary disk was hotter at center, cooler at edges
Thus rings of dust accumulates toward center, rings of ice at outskirts

As disk flattens- separation of volatiles and refractory materials- separates into gaseous planets and rocky planets

formed our solar system

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5
Q

Scientific Theory

A

group of related observations
based on proven hypotheses
verified multiple times
independent researchers

may be modified

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6
Q

Constant speed of Light

A

discovered by einstein

300,000 km/sec

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7
Q

Light year

A

9.5x10^12 km/yr

or 95 trillion kilometers a year

mesaure of distance not time

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8
Q

Doppler Effect

A

Assuming a stationary observer and moving source of sound or light:
wave frequency increases in direction of motion

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9
Q

Red shift/Blue shift

A

Blue shift, or higher frequency of light when an object is moving towards, and a red shift, or lower frequency, when an object is moving away from a person

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10
Q

Hubble’s Law

A

recessional velocity is directly proportional to distance

Means more distant objects move more quickly away from Earth

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11
Q

Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy

A

Fixed amount of matter and energy in universe

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12
Q

How old is the universe?

A

13.7 billion years ago

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13
Q

How old is our planet?

A

the same age as our solar system, 4.6 billion years old

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14
Q

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

A

fusion of protons to create elements with low atomic numbers (H, He, Li, Be, B)

aka formation of the lighter elements

Nucleosynthesis–> creation of nuclei by fusion of very close protons –> can create up to boron

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15
Q

Nebula

A

Gases clump together into a cloud or pillar

Larger nebulae:
more mass
more density

Nebulae–> stars

More mass–> more density–> gravity collapse inward and start to rotate (imagine ice skater spinning and then pulling arms and legs in)

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16
Q

Accretionary disk

A

spinning mass of gas and dust from which stars and planets form

Hydrogen nuclei at center fuse to make Helium–heat and light create star

See mass start to flatten out after spinning

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17
Q

Stellar Nucleosynthesis

A

formation of higher atomic number elements within stars by:

  1. Fusion–small nuclei fuse
  2. Neutron capture and decay
    - neutron sticks to nucleus (so atomic mass goes up
    - neutron releases e-, so now p+ (so atomic number goes up)

Need to have stars present before heavier elements become present
Mostly nuetron capture and decay= neutrons that are available stick to nucleus–>higher mass–>decay–> release of electron to it becomes a proton–>change in atomic number

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18
Q

Supernova

A

A shortlived very bright object in space that results form the cataclysmic explosion marking the death of a very large star

ejects very large quantities of matter into space to form new nebulae

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19
Q

How old is our solar system?

A

4.6 billion years old (same age as the earth)

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20
Q

Protoplanetary

A

has ingredients available to create planets

Ex: the accretionary disk of our sun was this

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21
Q

Volatiles

A

gas or ice (H2, He, CH4, NH3, H2O, CO)

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22
Q

Refractory materials

A

rocky or metallic materials (heavier elements)

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23
Q

How do we know that layers exist in a planet?

A

Earthquakes generate seismic waves

Energy from waves reflected or refracted at boundaries between different materials

Seismic waves travel at different speeds in different materials

Differences in density–> different speeds of seismic waves
Some waves can only go through some materials
Less dense material= slower wave
More dense/homogenous material= faster wave

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24
Q

Seismic Waves

A

waves of energy emitted from the focus of an earthquake

Differences in density–>different speeds of seismic waves
Some waves can only go through some materials
Less dense material= slower wave
More dense/homogenous material= faster wave

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25
Q

Physical Differentiation

A

Earth has 4 layers based on physical characteristics like density and the material’s ability to flow:
Lithosphere (rigid solid)
Asthenosphere (plastic solid)
Outer core (liquid)
Inner core (solid)

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26
Q

Chemical Differentiation

A

core, mantle, and crust

Core= iron
mantle= iron, silicon, oxygen
Crust= silicon and oxygen
Mantle is a blend of both- b/c the core is recycled over time through plate tectonics and mix in the mantle

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27
Q

Felsic

A

lighter in color

higher silicon content

melts at lower temperatures

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28
Q

Mafic

A

darker color

higher magnesium and iron content

melts at higher temperatures

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29
Q

Continental Crust

A

Average thickness = 35 – 40 km
Continental crust has felsic composition

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30
Q

Oceanic Crust

A

Average thickness = 7-10 km
Oceanic crust has a mafic composition

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31
Q

Lithosphere

A

rigid outer shell including crust and uppermost mantle

Two types of crust- oceanic crust and continental crust

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32
Q

Asthenosphere

A

portion of mantle where mafic rock flows (very slowly)

Convection occurs here

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33
Q

Outer Core

A

Liquid iron-nickel alloy
Fe, Ni, Si, O, S

Convective flow generates Earth’s magnetic field

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34
Q

Inner Core

A

Boundary between outer and inner core separates

Solid Fe-Ni alloy

Solid because of high pressure

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35
Q

Minerals

A
  1. Naturally occurring
  2. Solid
  3. Formed by geologic processes
  4. Crystalline structure
  5. Definite chemical composition
  6. Inorganic

Identified by

color, streak, luster, hardness, specific gravity, fracture vs. cleavage,

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36
Q

Crystal Structure

A

how atoms are arranged in organized pattern (crystal lattice)

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37
Q

Polymorphs

A

Minerals with same chemical composition, but different chemical structure

ex: graphite and diamond

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38
Q

Calcite

A

CaCO3

nonmetallic

clear

white streak

cleavage

soft

normal specific gravity

reacts with HCl

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39
Q

Quartz

A

SiO2

nonmetallic

white

no streak

fracture

hard

normal gravity

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40
Q

Covalent Bond

A

shared electrons

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41
Q

Ionic Bond

A

transfer of electrons

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42
Q

Oxides

A

mineral class

Metal cation bonded to oxygen anion

very common on earth

hematite, magnetite

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43
Q

Sulfides

A

Mineral class

Metal cation bonded to sulfide anion (S2-)

pyrite, galena

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44
Q

Sulfates

A

mineral class

Metal cation bonded to (SO4 )2-

gypsum

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45
Q

Halides

A

mineral class

Anion is a halogen ion (Cl-, F-)

halite

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46
Q

Carbonates

A

mineral class

Anionic group (CO3)2-

calcite

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47
Q

Native Metals

A

Mineral class

Atoms of one metal (metallic bonds)

Ex: gold, copper

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48
Q

Silicates

A

most importatn mineral class

Si and O most abundant elements in crust

Silicate minerals = 95% of crust

Diversity due to how tetrahedra link and share oxygen atoms

Anion (SiO4)4-

Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron

Ionic bond to cations

Covalent bond to oxygens

Amazing diversity

Ex: isolated tetrahedra (olivine), chains (amphibole and pyroxene), sheets (micas), frameworks (feldspars)

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49
Q

Plagioclase Feldspar

A

nonmetallic

grey, cream, brown

white streak

cleavage

hard

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49
Q

K-Feldspar

A

nonmetallic

brown, cream, orange, pink

no streak

cleavage

hard

normal gravity

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50
Q

Amphibole

A

nonmetallic

black

grey streak

fracture

hard

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51
Q

Pyroxene

A

mineral

nonmetallic

green to black

hard

cleavage

streak varies by type

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52
Q

Olivine

A

hard

fracture

nonmetallic

green

makes up the earth’s mantle

no streak

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53
Q

Hematite

A

nonmetallic

soft

fracture

earthy color

distinct red brown streak

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54
Q

The Rock Cycle

A
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55
Q

Igneous Rocks

A

for classification condsider setting of crystallization, mineral composition, and texture

formed by the freezing of molten rock

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56
Q

Magma

A

molten rock below the earths surface

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57
Q

LAva

A

molten rock at Earth’s surface

primarily stuff coming out of volcanoes

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58
Q

Intrusive

A

If crystallization occurs below surface

Magma intrudes into pre-existing country rock

Creates baked zone (where magma bakes other rock)

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59
Q

Extrusive

A

If crystallization occurs at surface

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60
Q

Decompression

A

one way to get magma

Hot mantle rock rises to shallower depths

Pressure decreases, magma forms

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61
Q

Addition of volitiles to rock

A

one way to get magma

hot, dry rock–> H2O or other gases diffuse through rock–> rock begins to melt

Mixing of volatiles (H2O, CO2) with rock breaks chemical bonds to cause melting

adding water decreases the melting point

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62
Q

Heat Transfer

A

Rising magma melts rock it intrudes

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63
Q

Why does magma composition vary?

A

Source rocks

Mixing

Assimilation–country rock from walls of magma chamber incorporated into magma

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64
Q

Parital Melting

A

only some rock melts and moves out in the formation of igneous rocks

felsic material melts first at a lower temp. and leaves the mafic stuff behind

65
Q

Fractional Crystallization

A

crystals settle out while cooling

Mafic minerals form first

Remaining magma becomes silica-rich

66
Q

Plutons

A

intrusive igneous blobs (10m-10km)

67
Q

Batholiths

A

composite body of numerous plutons in same region (100km x 100km)

68
Q

Phaneritic

A

crystalline texture for igneous rocks

visible crystals (intrusive)

69
Q

Aphanitic

A

crystalline texture of igneous rocks

crystals too small to be seen with naked eye (extrusive)

70
Q

Products of Eruptions

A

Lava flows

pyroclastic debris

volcanic gases

71
Q

Lava flows

A

Character of flow reflects viscosity

all the molten stuff that flows out

very much related to chemical composition differences

72
Q

Pyroclastic debris

A

same as volcaniclastic debris

73
Q

Volcanic gases

A

Primary dissolved gases
Mostly nasty gases
Can be factors in climate change with extensive eruptions over time

water, carbon doixide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide

74
Q

High Viscosity Flows

A

difficult flow

more SiO2

cool lava

gas-poor lava

crystal rich lava

more felsic rock

75
Q

Low Viscosity FLows

A

easy flow

less SiO2

hot lava

gas rich lava

crystal poor lava

felsic and mafic materials

76
Q

pahoehoe

A

type of basaltic flow

ropy appearance

bottom keeps moving and top solidifies

wrinkles

77
Q

aa

A

type of basaltic lava flow

just folds over itself

78
Q

Columnar jointing

A

regular pattern of cracks that develop as the basaltic lava flow cools

79
Q

Volcaniclastic debris

A

Any fragmental material erupted or dispersed from volcano:

glass shards

obsidian

pumice, scoria

pre-existing rocks at vent

80
Q

Volcanic ash

A

powder-sized glass fragments

81
Q

Pumice/scoria (volcano)

A

gas filled rock that solidified at vent

82
Q

Lapilli

A

pea to plum size rock debris

83
Q

Blocks and bombs

A

apple to refrigerator-sized
blocks–chunks from walls of vent
bombs–lava that solidifies in air

84
Q

Tuff

A

lithified ash and lapilli

85
Q

Tephra

A

unconsolidated piles of pyroclastic grains, no mattrer size

86
Q

Pyroclastic flows

A

an erruption hazard

gravity-driven avalanche of hot ash and lapilli

87
Q

Lahar

A

eruption hazard

fast-moving flow of ash-rich debris and water

Follow streams and river valleys off volcano slopes

88
Q

Shield Volcano

A

low-viscosity basalt flows

Ex: hawaii and mars

89
Q

Cinder cone volcano

A

cone-shaped piles of tephra

very rich ash deposits

sometimes develop on sides of sheild volcanos

90
Q

Stratovolcanoes

A

alternating layers of lava flows and tephra

91
Q

Effusive Erruption Style

A

produces lava flows

Depends on lava viscosity and gas content

92
Q

Explosive Eruption Style

A

produces pyroclastic debris

Depends on lava viscosity and gas content

More gas dissolved= more potential for explosion

93
Q

Sedimentary Rocks

A
94
Q

Granite

A

igneous rock

intrusive

phaneritic

felsic

quartz, K-fed

high viscosity/ low temp

light pink color

slow cooling

95
Q

Basalt

A

igneous

extrusive

mafic

aphanitic

dark black color

low viscosity/high temperature

fast cooling

96
Q

Pumice

A

extrusive igneous

vesicular texture

light in color

very porous

made of glass

fast cooling

97
Q

Obsidian

A

igneous

extrusive

fast cooling

glassy

quartz

99
Q

Conglomerate

A

sedimentary rock

clastic

mineral=quartz

poorly sorted

rounded gravel grains

grey, dense, chunky

rivers, steep streams (fast current, terrestrial)

100
Q

Breccia

A

sedimentary

clastic

angular gravel grains

named for type of mineral (quartz, arkose, lithic, and wacke)

poorly sorted

very large chunks

101
Q

Sandstone

A

sedimentary

clastic

named for minerals present (quartz, arkose, lithic, and wacke)

sand grain size

well sorted

fine lines

rivers, beaches, and desert

102
Q

Shale

A

sedimentary

clastic

well sorted

no visible grain

splits easily into layers

lakes and floodplanes

103
Q

Limestone

A

biochemical

calcite

reacts with HCl

104
Q

Clastic

A

cementing of pre-exsisting sediment

105
Q

Biochemical

A

growth/accumulation of skeletal material (fossils and shells)

106
Q

Chemical

A

precipitation of minerals

107
Q

Sediment

A

Loose fragments of rocks, minerals and shells

108
Q

Physical Weathering

A

breaking rock into unconnected chunks

one way to get sediment

109
Q

Chemical Weathering

A

reactions that destroy minerals if rock contacts air or water

the other way to get sediments

110
Q

Jointing

A

physical weathering

Cracking due to removal of overburden or cooling

111
Q

Exfoliation

A

physical weathering

Jointing in onion-like sheets

characteristic of granitic plutons

112
Q

Frost Wedging

A

Physical weathering

Ice expansion during freeze/thaw cycles

113
Q

Root wedging

A

physical weathering

Plant roots push joints apart

114
Q

How does pysical weathering aid chemical weathering and vice versa?

A

physical weathering increases surface area, thus allowing water to seep down into the cracks

Chemical weathering aids in physical weathering by weakening the rock

115
Q

Dissolution

A

chemical weathering

dissolving of minerals in water

Ex: formation of acid rain

116
Q

Hydrolysis

A

chemical weathering

reaction of minerals with water to produce secondary minerals

117
Q

Oxidation

A

a type of chemical weathering

Elemental loss of electrons, commonly due to oxygen

118
Q

Soil

A

sediment produced by chemical/physical weatehring that is subjected to addtional processes:

addition of organic matter, ions from rainwater, dust

movement of material downward by groundwater percolation

bioturbation

119
Q

Sedimentary Environments

A

aka depositional environments

categories= terrestrial and marine

120
Q

Glaciers

A

Current: s…l…o…w

Seds: unsorted

Minerals: variable

Rocks: till deposit, conglomerates

121
Q

Alluvial Fan

A

Current: fast to slow

Seds: sands, boulders

Minerals: lots of feldspar

Rocks: conglomerate, arkose

122
Q

Desert

A

Current: wind

Seds: well-sorted

Minerals: quartz

Rocks: quartz sandstone

123
Q

Lakes

A

Current: slow

Seds: clay-sized

Minerals: clay
minerals

Rocks: shale

124
Q

River

A

Current: moderate

Seds: variable sizes
fine floodplain
sand in channel

Minerals: variable

Rocks: sandstone, siltstone, shale

Most common sedimentary environment

125
Q

Marine Delta

A

Current: fast than slow

Sediments: clay to sand

Minerals: silicates

Rocks: sandstone, siltstone

Sub-environment: swamps, lagoons
plant material–coal

126
Q

Coastal Beach

A

Current: bidirectional

Seds: well-sorted

Minerals: quartz

Rocks: quartz sandstone

127
Q

Shallow Clastic Marine

A

Current: low

Seds: well-sorted, well-rounded

Minerals: silicates

Rocks: siltstone

128
Q

Shallow carbonate marine

A

Current: variable

Seds: fossils

Minerals: calcite

Rocks: limestone,
reef

129
Q

Deep Marine

A

Current: low

Seds: microfossil shells

Minerals: calcite, quartz

Rocks: mudstone, chalk, chert

130
Q

Transgression

A
131
Q

Regression

A

Sea level fall

Migration of coast seaward

Coarsening up sediments

132
Q

Metamorphism

A

A change in form to protolith (Pre exsisting rock)

Change either mineralogic (formation of new minerals) or textural (size,shape, and arrangement of grains changes)

No melting- solid state process

Caused by physical or chemical changes in environment (aka heat, pressure, anf hydrothermal fluids)

133
Q

Regional Metamophism

A

Heating and compressing the rock by taking the rocks to the heat (burying them)

temo up due to igneous activity, geothermal gradient

pressure up due to burial

differential stress

134
Q

Contact Metaporhism

A

Heating the rocks by bringing the heat to the rocks (igneous intrusion)

low pressures, variable temps.

Ex; pluton can create contact with other rocks

On a smaller scale

135
Q

Lithostatic or confining pressure

A

pressure is equal from all directions

136
Q

differential or directed pressure

A

pressure is variable with direction

137
Q

Development of foliation

A

Creation of layering in our rock with compression

could start out with a random fabric of minerals

circle grains become ovals and linear ones become elongated

very typical with regional metamorphism because of the big scale process

138
Q

Metamorphic Processes

A

Recrystallization

Plastic deformation

Pressure solution

Phase change

Neocrystallization

139
Q

Recrystallization

A

change in size and shape (but not composition) of mineral grains (interlocking)

Ex: marble

140
Q

Plastic deformation

A

change in shape (but not composition) of mineral grains (flattening of grains)

Ex: gneiss

141
Q

Pressure solution

A

dissolution and precipitation along mineral surfaces due to differential pressure

142
Q

Phase Change

A

change in crystal lattice of mineral grains (new polymorph mineral forms

Ex: quartz->coesite

143
Q

Neocrystallization

A

growth of new minerals from solid-state diffusion of atoms within crystals

Ex: garnets found on rocks

144
Q

Metasomatism

A

formation of hydrothermal fluids from sea water sinking down into the cracks in the crust and heating up with the magma

Fluids form from groundwater cooling of magma, product of metamorphic reactions

Hydrothermal fluids speed up reactions, provide water, adn transport ions in and out

end result= vein of precipitated minerals

145
Q

Grade

A

intensity of metamorphism

foliation increases as grade increases

146
Q

Index mineral

A

mineral that indicates certain pressure and temperature conditions in metamorphic rocks

147
Q

Metamorphic facies

A

group of minerals indicating Pressure and Temperature conditions for certain protolith

148
Q

Characteristics of Metamorpic rocks

A

Texture (interlocking crystals)

Minerals (presence of those that form only through metamorphic processes)

Foliation (layering/parrallel alignment of mineral crystals)

149
Q

Gneiss

A

Metamorphic

Banded rock, alternating dark and light layers

Dark layers = biotite

Light layers = quartz and feldspars

High Grade

Foliated

parent rock= granite

150
Q

Schist

A

Metamorphic

Abundant obvious micas, larger crystals may be present

Types based on minerals present
mica schist
garnet schist
chlorite schist

Intermediate grade

151
Q

Slate

A

Metamorphic

Parent Rock=Shale

Cleavage

Rings when you strike it

Low Grade

Foliated

152
Q

Marble

A

Metamorphic

No foliation

Fizzes in acid

Parent rock= limestone or dolostone

dom. mineral= calcite

153
Q

Quartzite

A

Metamorphic

PArent rock= quartz sandstone

interlocking grains of quartz

Fractures through the grains, rather than between the grains like sandstone

Scratches glass

Nonfoliated

All quartz pieces are stuck together, with no cement

154
Q

Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

A

Recrystallized from protolith

No orientation to crystals

Crystals often similar in size

Ex: marble and quartzite

155
Q

Types of differential stress

A

Compression (squeezing)

Tension (pulling)

Shear (smearing)

156
Q

Lithofication

A

Compaction: minerals are squeezed together and the water/air in pore spaces is expelled

Cementation: circulating waters precipitate cements into the void spaces (CaCO3, oxides, quartz)

157
Q

Formation of Heavier elements

A

Heaviest elements form when neutrons are released during huge explosions associated with supernovas

Nuetrons come from supernovas aka death of the star

Stop the fusion at the center of the star

158
Q

mineral composition of felsic igneous rock

A

Quartz, K-feldspar, Na-plagioclase

159
Q

mineral composition of intermediate igneous rock

A

Ca/Na-plagioclase, amphibole,
quartz

160
Q

mineral composition of mafic igneous rock

A

Ca-plagioclase,olivine, pyroxene

161
Q

mineral composition of ultramafic rock

A

olivine, pyroxene

Geology 101 (4 decks)

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