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Geology 101 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is geology?

A

The study of Earth including:
composition
behavior
history

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2
Q

Expanding Universe Theory

A

Hubble observed all light from all galaxies exhibits red shift

Means all galaxies are moving away from the Earth very quickly

Creates the basis for big bang

Universe has been expanding since the big bang

Assumption of the law is that we are a stationary observers

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3
Q

Big Bang Theory

A

A cataclysmic explosion that scientists suggest represent the formation of the universe

before this, all matter and energy was packed into one volumeless point

There was no big “explosion” from single point, “simultaneous appearance of space everywhere in the universe”
Big Bang theory doesn’t explain what universe expands into
Big Bang theory doesn’t address what caused expansion to begin

during first second= protons and neutrons form

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4
Q

Nebular Theory

A

The protoplanetary disk was hotter at center, cooler at edges
Thus rings of dust accumulates toward center, rings of ice at outskirts

As disk flattens- separation of volatiles and refractory materials- separates into gaseous planets and rocky planets

formed our solar system

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5
Q

Scientific Theory

A

group of related observations
based on proven hypotheses
verified multiple times
independent researchers

may be modified

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6
Q

Constant speed of Light

A

discovered by einstein

300,000 km/sec

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7
Q

Light year

A

9.5x10^12 km/yr

or 95 trillion kilometers a year

mesaure of distance not time

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8
Q

Doppler Effect

A

Assuming a stationary observer and moving source of sound or light:
wave frequency increases in direction of motion

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9
Q

Red shift/Blue shift

A

Blue shift, or higher frequency of light when an object is moving towards, and a red shift, or lower frequency, when an object is moving away from a person

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10
Q

Hubble’s Law

A

recessional velocity is directly proportional to distance

Means more distant objects move more quickly away from Earth

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11
Q

Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy

A

Fixed amount of matter and energy in universe

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12
Q

How old is the universe?

A

13.7 billion years ago

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13
Q

How old is our planet?

A

the same age as our solar system, 4.6 billion years old

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14
Q

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

A

fusion of protons to create elements with low atomic numbers (H, He, Li, Be, B)

aka formation of the lighter elements

Nucleosynthesis–> creation of nuclei by fusion of very close protons –> can create up to boron

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15
Q

Nebula

A

Gases clump together into a cloud or pillar

Larger nebulae:
more mass
more density

Nebulae–> stars

More mass–> more density–> gravity collapse inward and start to rotate (imagine ice skater spinning and then pulling arms and legs in)

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16
Q

Accretionary disk

A

spinning mass of gas and dust from which stars and planets form

Hydrogen nuclei at center fuse to make Helium–heat and light create star

See mass start to flatten out after spinning

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17
Q

Stellar Nucleosynthesis

A

formation of higher atomic number elements within stars by:

  1. Fusion–small nuclei fuse
  2. Neutron capture and decay
    - neutron sticks to nucleus (so atomic mass goes up
    - neutron releases e-, so now p+ (so atomic number goes up)

Need to have stars present before heavier elements become present
Mostly nuetron capture and decay= neutrons that are available stick to nucleus–>higher mass–>decay–> release of electron to it becomes a proton–>change in atomic number

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18
Q

Supernova

A

A shortlived very bright object in space that results form the cataclysmic explosion marking the death of a very large star

ejects very large quantities of matter into space to form new nebulae

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19
Q

How old is our solar system?

A

4.6 billion years old (same age as the earth)

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20
Q

Protoplanetary

A

has ingredients available to create planets

Ex: the accretionary disk of our sun was this

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21
Q

Volatiles

A

gas or ice (H2, He, CH4, NH3, H2O, CO)

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22
Q

Refractory materials

A

rocky or metallic materials (heavier elements)

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23
Q

How do we know that layers exist in a planet?

A

Earthquakes generate seismic waves

Energy from waves reflected or refracted at boundaries between different materials

Seismic waves travel at different speeds in different materials

Differences in density–> different speeds of seismic waves
Some waves can only go through some materials
Less dense material= slower wave
More dense/homogenous material= faster wave

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24
Q

Seismic Waves

A

waves of energy emitted from the focus of an earthquake

Differences in density–>different speeds of seismic waves
Some waves can only go through some materials
Less dense material= slower wave
More dense/homogenous material= faster wave

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25
Physical Differentiation
Earth has 4 layers based on physical characteristics like density and the material’s ability to flow: Lithosphere (rigid solid) Asthenosphere (plastic solid) Outer core (liquid) Inner core (solid)
26
Chemical Differentiation
core, mantle, and crust Core= iron mantle= iron, silicon, oxygen Crust= silicon and oxygen Mantle is a blend of both- b/c the core is recycled over time through plate tectonics and mix in the mantle
27
Felsic
lighter in color higher silicon content melts at lower temperatures
28
Mafic
darker color higher magnesium and iron content melts at higher temperatures
29
Continental Crust
Average thickness = 35 – 40 km Continental crust has felsic composition
30
Oceanic Crust
Average thickness = 7-10 km Oceanic crust has a mafic composition
31
Lithosphere
rigid outer shell including crust and uppermost mantle Two types of crust- oceanic crust and continental crust
32
Asthenosphere
portion of mantle where mafic rock flows (very slowly) Convection occurs here
33
Outer Core
Liquid iron-nickel alloy Fe, Ni, Si, O, S Convective flow generates Earth’s magnetic field
34
Inner Core
Boundary between outer and inner core separates Solid Fe-Ni alloy Solid because of high pressure
35
Minerals
1. Naturally occurring 2. Solid 3. Formed by geologic processes 4. Crystalline structure 5. Definite chemical composition 6. Inorganic Identified by color, streak, luster, hardness, specific gravity, fracture vs. cleavage,
36
Crystal Structure
how atoms are arranged in organized pattern (crystal lattice)
37
Polymorphs
Minerals with same chemical composition, but different chemical structure ex: graphite and diamond
38
Calcite
CaCO3 nonmetallic clear white streak cleavage soft normal specific gravity reacts with HCl
39
Quartz
SiO2 nonmetallic white no streak fracture hard normal gravity
40
Covalent Bond
shared electrons
41
Ionic Bond
transfer of electrons
42
Oxides
mineral class Metal cation bonded to oxygen anion very common on earth hematite, magnetite
43
Sulfides
Mineral class Metal cation bonded to sulfide anion (S2-) pyrite, galena
44
Sulfates
mineral class Metal cation bonded to (SO4 )2- gypsum
45
Halides
mineral class Anion is a halogen ion (Cl-, F-) halite
46
Carbonates
mineral class Anionic group (CO3)2- calcite
47
Native Metals
Mineral class Atoms of one metal (metallic bonds) Ex: gold, copper
48
Silicates
most importatn mineral class Si and O most abundant elements in crust Silicate minerals = 95% of crust Diversity due to how tetrahedra link and share oxygen atoms Anion (SiO4)4- Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron Ionic bond to cations Covalent bond to oxygens Amazing diversity Ex: isolated tetrahedra (olivine), chains (amphibole and pyroxene), sheets (micas), frameworks (feldspars)
49
Plagioclase Feldspar
nonmetallic grey, cream, brown white streak cleavage hard
49
K-Feldspar
nonmetallic brown, cream, orange, pink no streak cleavage hard normal gravity
50
Amphibole
nonmetallic black grey streak fracture hard
51
Pyroxene
mineral nonmetallic green to black hard cleavage streak varies by type
52
Olivine
hard fracture nonmetallic green makes up the earth's mantle no streak
53
Hematite
nonmetallic soft fracture earthy color distinct red brown streak
54
The Rock Cycle
55
Igneous Rocks
for classification condsider setting of crystallization, mineral composition, and texture formed by the freezing of molten rock
56
Magma
molten rock below the earths surface
57
LAva
molten rock at Earth’s surface ## Footnote primarily stuff coming out of volcanoes
58
Intrusive
If crystallization occurs below surface Magma intrudes into pre-existing country rock Creates baked zone (where magma bakes other rock)
59
Extrusive
If crystallization occurs at surface
60
Decompression
one way to get magma Hot mantle rock rises to shallower depths Pressure decreases, magma forms
61
Addition of volitiles to rock
one way to get magma hot, dry rock--\> H2O or other gases diffuse through rock--\> rock begins to melt Mixing of volatiles (H2O, CO2) with rock breaks chemical bonds to cause melting adding water decreases the melting point
62
Heat Transfer
Rising magma melts rock it intrudes
63
Why does magma composition vary?
Source rocks ## Footnote Mixing Assimilation--country rock from walls of magma chamber incorporated into magma
64
Parital Melting
only some rock melts and moves out in the formation of igneous rocks felsic material melts first at a lower temp. and leaves the mafic stuff behind
65
Fractional Crystallization
crystals settle out while cooling ## Footnote Mafic minerals form first Remaining magma becomes silica-rich
66
Plutons
intrusive igneous blobs (10m-10km)
67
Batholiths
composite body of numerous plutons in same region (100km x 100km)
68
Phaneritic
crystalline texture for igneous rocks visible crystals (intrusive)
69
Aphanitic
crystalline texture of igneous rocks crystals too small to be seen with naked eye (extrusive)
70
Products of Eruptions
Lava flows pyroclastic debris volcanic gases
71
Lava flows
Character of flow reflects viscosity all the molten stuff that flows out very much related to chemical composition differences
72
Pyroclastic debris
same as volcaniclastic debris
73
Volcanic gases
Primary dissolved gases Mostly nasty gases Can be factors in climate change with extensive eruptions over time water, carbon doixide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide
74
High Viscosity Flows
difficult flow more SiO2 cool lava gas-poor lava crystal rich lava more felsic rock
75
Low Viscosity FLows
easy flow less SiO2 hot lava gas rich lava crystal poor lava felsic and mafic materials
76
pahoehoe
type of basaltic flow ropy appearance bottom keeps moving and top solidifies wrinkles
77
aa
type of basaltic lava flow just folds over itself
78
Columnar jointing
regular pattern of cracks that develop as the basaltic lava flow cools
79
Volcaniclastic debris
Any fragmental material erupted or dispersed from volcano: glass shards obsidian pumice, scoria pre-existing rocks at vent
80
Volcanic ash
powder-sized glass fragments ## Footnote
81
Pumice/scoria (volcano)
gas filled rock that solidified at vent
82
Lapilli
pea to plum size rock debris
83
Blocks and bombs
apple to refrigerator-sized blocks--chunks from walls of vent bombs--lava that solidifies in air
84
Tuff
lithified ash and lapilli
85
Tephra
unconsolidated piles of pyroclastic grains, no mattrer size
86
Pyroclastic flows
an erruption hazard gravity-driven avalanche of hot ash and lapilli
87
Lahar
eruption hazard fast-moving flow of ash-rich debris and water Follow streams and river valleys off volcano slopes
88
Shield Volcano
low-viscosity basalt flows Ex: hawaii and mars
89
Cinder cone volcano
cone-shaped piles of tephra very rich ash deposits sometimes develop on sides of sheild volcanos
90
Stratovolcanoes
alternating layers of lava flows and tephra
91
Effusive Erruption Style
produces lava flows Depends on lava viscosity and gas content
92
Explosive Eruption Style
produces pyroclastic debris Depends on lava viscosity and gas content More gas dissolved= more potential for explosion
93
Sedimentary Rocks
94
Granite
igneous rock intrusive phaneritic felsic quartz, K-fed high viscosity/ low temp light pink color slow cooling
95
Basalt
igneous extrusive mafic aphanitic dark black color low viscosity/high temperature fast cooling
96
Pumice
extrusive igneous vesicular texture light in color very porous made of glass fast cooling
97
Obsidian
igneous extrusive fast cooling glassy quartz
99
Conglomerate
sedimentary rock clastic mineral=quartz poorly sorted rounded gravel grains grey, dense, chunky rivers, steep streams (fast current, terrestrial)
100
Breccia
sedimentary clastic angular gravel grains named for type of mineral (quartz, arkose, lithic, and wacke) poorly sorted very large chunks
101
Sandstone
sedimentary clastic named for minerals present (quartz, arkose, lithic, and wacke) sand grain size well sorted fine lines rivers, beaches, and desert
102
Shale
sedimentary clastic well sorted no visible grain splits easily into layers lakes and floodplanes
103
Limestone
biochemical calcite reacts with HCl
104
Clastic
cementing of pre-exsisting sediment
105
Biochemical
growth/accumulation of skeletal material (fossils and shells)
106
Chemical
precipitation of minerals
107
Sediment
Loose fragments of rocks, minerals and shells
108
Physical Weathering
breaking rock into unconnected chunks one way to get sediment
109
Chemical Weathering
reactions that destroy minerals if rock contacts air or water the other way to get sediments
110
Jointing
physical weathering Cracking due to removal of overburden or cooling
111
Exfoliation
physical weathering Jointing in onion-like sheets characteristic of granitic plutons
112
Frost Wedging
Physical weathering Ice expansion during freeze/thaw cycles
113
Root wedging
physical weathering Plant roots push joints apart
114
How does pysical weathering aid chemical weathering and vice versa?
physical weathering increases surface area, thus allowing water to seep down into the cracks Chemical weathering aids in physical weathering by weakening the rock
115
Dissolution
chemical weathering dissolving of minerals in water Ex: formation of acid rain
116
Hydrolysis
chemical weathering reaction of minerals with water to produce secondary minerals
117
Oxidation
a type of chemical weathering Elemental loss of electrons, commonly due to oxygen
118
Soil
sediment produced by chemical/physical weatehring that is subjected to addtional processes: addition of organic matter, ions from rainwater, dust movement of material downward by groundwater percolation bioturbation
119
Sedimentary Environments
aka depositional environments categories= terrestrial and marine
120
Glaciers
Current: s…l…o…w ## Footnote Seds: unsorted Minerals: variable Rocks: till deposit, conglomerates
121
Alluvial Fan
Current: fast to slow ## Footnote Seds: sands, boulders Minerals: lots of feldspar Rocks: conglomerate, arkose
122
Desert
Current: wind ## Footnote Seds: well-sorted Minerals: quartz Rocks: quartz sandstone
123
Lakes
Current: slow ## Footnote Seds: clay-sized Minerals: clay minerals Rocks: shale
124
River
Current: moderate ## Footnote Seds: variable sizes fine floodplain sand in channel Minerals: variable Rocks: sandstone, siltstone, shale Most common sedimentary environment
125
Marine Delta
Current: fast than slow ## Footnote Sediments: clay to sand Minerals: silicates Rocks: sandstone, siltstone Sub-environment: swamps, lagoons plant material--coal
126
Coastal Beach
Current: bidirectional ## Footnote Seds: well-sorted Minerals: quartz Rocks: quartz sandstone
127
Shallow Clastic Marine
Current: low Seds: well-sorted, well-rounded Minerals: silicates Rocks: siltstone
128
Shallow carbonate marine
Current: variable ## Footnote Seds: fossils Minerals: calcite Rocks: limestone, reef
129
Deep Marine
Current: low ## Footnote Seds: microfossil shells Minerals: calcite, quartz Rocks: mudstone, chalk, chert
130
Transgression
131
Regression
Sea level fall ## Footnote Migration of coast seaward Coarsening up sediments
132
Metamorphism
A change in form to protolith (Pre exsisting rock) Change either mineralogic (formation of new minerals) or textural (size,shape, and arrangement of grains changes) No melting- solid state process Caused by physical or chemical changes in environment (aka heat, pressure, anf hydrothermal fluids)
133
Regional Metamophism
Heating and compressing the rock by taking the rocks to the heat (burying them) temo up due to igneous activity, geothermal gradient pressure up due to burial differential stress
134
Contact Metaporhism
Heating the rocks by bringing the heat to the rocks (igneous intrusion) low pressures, variable temps. Ex; pluton can create contact with other rocks On a smaller scale
135
Lithostatic or confining pressure
pressure is equal from all directions
136
differential or directed pressure
pressure is variable with direction
137
Development of foliation
Creation of layering in our rock with compression could start out with a random fabric of minerals circle grains become ovals and linear ones become elongated very typical with regional metamorphism because of the big scale process
138
Metamorphic Processes
Recrystallization Plastic deformation Pressure solution Phase change Neocrystallization
139
Recrystallization
change in size and shape (but not composition) of mineral grains (interlocking) Ex: marble
140
Plastic deformation
change in shape (but not composition) of mineral grains (flattening of grains) Ex: gneiss
141
Pressure solution
dissolution and precipitation along mineral surfaces due to differential pressure
142
Phase Change
change in crystal lattice of mineral grains (new polymorph mineral forms Ex: quartz-\>coesite
143
Neocrystallization
growth of new minerals from solid-state diffusion of atoms within crystals Ex: garnets found on rocks
144
Metasomatism
formation of hydrothermal fluids from sea water sinking down into the cracks in the crust and heating up with the magma Fluids form from groundwater cooling of magma, product of metamorphic reactions Hydrothermal fluids speed up reactions, provide water, adn transport ions in and out end result= vein of precipitated minerals
145
Grade
intensity of metamorphism foliation increases as grade increases
146
Index mineral
mineral that indicates certain pressure and temperature conditions in metamorphic rocks
147
Metamorphic facies
group of minerals indicating Pressure and Temperature conditions for certain protolith
148
Characteristics of Metamorpic rocks
Texture (interlocking crystals) Minerals (presence of those that form only through metamorphic processes) Foliation (layering/parrallel alignment of mineral crystals)
149
Gneiss
Metamorphic Banded rock, alternating dark and light layers Dark layers = biotite Light layers = quartz and feldspars High Grade Foliated parent rock= granite
150
Schist
Metamorphic Abundant obvious micas, larger crystals may be present Types based on minerals present mica schist garnet schist chlorite schist Intermediate grade
151
Slate
Metamorphic Parent Rock=Shale Cleavage Rings when you strike it Low Grade Foliated
152
Marble
Metamorphic No foliation Fizzes in acid Parent rock= limestone or dolostone dom. mineral= calcite
153
Quartzite
Metamorphic PArent rock= quartz sandstone interlocking grains of quartz Fractures through the grains, rather than between the grains like sandstone Scratches glass Nonfoliated All quartz pieces are stuck together, with no cement
154
Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Recrystallized from protolith No orientation to crystals Crystals often similar in size Ex: marble and quartzite
155
Types of differential stress
Compression (squeezing) Tension (pulling) Shear (smearing)
156
Lithofication
Compaction: minerals are squeezed together and the water/air in pore spaces is expelled ## Footnote Cementation: circulating waters precipitate cements into the void spaces (CaCO3, oxides, quartz)
157
Formation of Heavier elements
Heaviest elements form when neutrons are released during huge explosions associated with supernovas Nuetrons come from supernovas aka death of the star Stop the fusion at the center of the star
158
mineral composition of felsic igneous rock
Quartz, K-feldspar, Na-plagioclase
159
mineral composition of intermediate igneous rock
Ca/Na-plagioclase, amphibole, quartz ## Footnote
160
mineral composition of mafic igneous rock
Ca-plagioclase,olivine, pyroxene
161
mineral composition of ultramafic rock
olivine, pyroxene

Geology 101 (4 decks)

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