Exam 1 Flashcards
______ _______ result from the arrangement and interaction of parts within a system; characterize nonbiological entities as well
Emergent Properties
_______ is the reduction of complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study.
EX; the molecular structure of DNA
Reductionism
A ____ is a combination of components that function together.
system
____ _____ constructs models for the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems.
Systems Biology
What are the 3 approaches to study biology?
reductionism, emergent properties, systems biology
What are the levels(in order) at which we study life?
biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, organism, organ system, organ, tissue, cell, organelle, molecule, atom
What are the activities that cells must perform to be alive?
homestasis, organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, reproduction
Regulation of the internal environment to maintain a constant state EX: sweating to reduce temp.
Homeostasis
Being structurally composed of one of more cells, which are basis units of life
Organization
Transformation of energy by converting chemicals and energy into cellular components and decomposing organic matter
Metabolism
Maintenance of a higher rate of anabolism than catabolism; a growing organism increases in size in all of its parts
Growth
The ability to change over time in response to environment; fundamental process of evolution
Adaptation
often expressed by motion
Response to stimuli
The ability to produce new individual organisms, either asexually from a single parent, or sexually from two parents
Reproduction
_____ are an organism’s basic unit of structure and function
cells
_____ are the lowest level of organization that can perform all activities required for life
cells
all cells are enclosed by a _____ and use ___ as their genetic information.
membrane; DNA
The ____ __ ___ ___ ___ is the basis of all reproduction, growth, and repair of multicellular organisms
ability of cells to divide
A _____ cell has membrane-enclosed organelles, the largest of which is usually the nucleus
eukaryotic
A _____ cell is simpler and usually smaller, and does not contain a nucleus or other membrane-enclosed organelles
prokaryotic
Bacteria and Archea are
prokaryotic
plants, animals, fungi, and all other forms of life besides bacteria and arches are
eukaryotic
The continuity of life is based on heritable information in the form of
DNA
Chromosomes contain most of a cell’s genetic material in form of ____
DNA
DNA is the substance of
genes
Each _____ has one long DNA molecule w/ hundreds or thousands of genes
chromosomes
How if DNA inherited?
From parents to offspring
DNA controls the ____ and _____ of organisms
development and maintenance
Each DNA molecule is made up of two long chains arranged in a
double helix
Each link of a chain is one of four kinds of chemical building blocks called
nucleotides
Genes control ____ production indirectly
protein
DNA is transcribed into ____ then translated into a protein
RNA
An organism’s _____ is its entire set of genetic instructions.
genome
observe and describe some aspects of the world and use inductive reasoning to draw general conclusions
discovery science
based on observations, scientists propose hypothesis that lead to predictions
hypothesis-based science
Matter is made up of ______
elements
An _____ is a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reaction
element
A _______ is a substance consisting of 2 or more elements in a fixed ratio.
compound
A compound has characteristics that are _____ from those of its elements
different
About __ of the 92 elements are essential to life
25
What makes up 96% of living matter?
Carbon, Oxygen
The remaining 4% of living matter consists of….
calcium, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur
____ elements are those required by an organism in minute quantities.
Trace
An element’s properties depend on the ____ of its atoms
structure
An atom is the _____ unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element
smallest
What are the subatomic particles of atoms?
protons, neutrons, and electrons
Neutrons have what charge?
neutral/none
protons have what charge?
positive
electrons have what charge?
negative
neutrons and protons are located where in an atom?
in the nucleus
electrons are located where in an atom?
they form a cloud around the nucleus
neutron mass and proton mass are almost _____ and are measured in daltons
indentical
An element’s ______ number is the number of protons in its nucleus
atomic
An element’s ______ number is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
mass
______ are the same element with the same # of protons but differing neutrons
isotopes
Isotopes are two atoms of an element that differ in the # of _______
neutrons
Radioactive isotopes decay spontaneously giving off ______ and _____
particles; energy
What are some applications of radioactive isotopes in biological research?
dating fossils, tracing atoms through metabolic processes, and diagnosing medical disorders
____ is the capacity to cause charge
energy
_____ energy is the energy that matter has because of its location or structure
potential
The electrons of an atom _____ in their amounts of potential energy
differ
An electron’s state of potential energy is called its ______
energy level or shell
The chemical behavior of an atom is determined by…
the distribution of electrons in electron shells
The ____ ____ shows the electron distribution for each element
periodic table
____ electrons are those the outermost shell.
valence
The _____ _____ of an atom is mostly determined by the valence electrons
chemical behavior
Elements with full valence shell are chemically ____
inert
An orbital is the 3D space where an ____ is found 90% of the time
electron
An electron shell consists of a specific number of _____
orbitals
The _____ and _____ of molecules depends on chemical bonding between its atoms
formation and function
Atoms with incomplete valence shells can ____ or ____ valence electrons with certain other atoms
share; transfer
Interactions in which atoms share or transfer valence electrons usually result in atoms staying close together, held in place by attractions called ______ _____
chemical bonds
A _____ bond is the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms
covalent
A ____ covalent bond is the sharing of one pair of valence electrons
single
A ____ covalent bound is the sharing of two pairs of valence electrons
double
Covalent bonds can form between…
atoms of the same element or atoms of different elements
A _____ is a combo of 2 or more different elements
compound
Bonding capacity is called an atom’s ____
valence
______ is an atom’s attraction for the electrons in a covalent bond
electronegativity
The more electronegative an atom is the more _____ it pulls shared electrons towards itself
strongly
In a _____ covalent bond the atoms share the electron equally
non polar
In a ____ covalent bond one atom is more electronegative and the atoms do not share the electrons equally
polar
what is the most electronegative atom?
oxygen
What element is the perfect sharer?
carbon
Un equal sharing of electrons a partial positive or negative charge for each atom or molecule called what?
a pole
Bond in which atoms strip electrons from their bonding partners are called what?
ionic bonds
A charged atom is called an ___
ion
A positively charged ion is called what?
cation
A negatively charged ion is called what?
anion
Compounds formed by ionic bonds are called ionic compound or
salts
Most of the strongest bonds in organisms are _____ binds that form a cell’s molecules.
covalent
Some examples of weak chemical bonds are…
ionic bonds and hydrogen bonds
Weak chemical bonds serve what purpose?
reinforce shapes of large molecules and help molecules adhere to each other
A ____ bond forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom
hydrogen
In living cells the electronegative partners are usually ______ or _______
oxygen or nitrogen
If electrons are distributed ______ in molecules they can result in “hot spots” of positive or negative charge
asymmetrically
This asymmetrical distribution between molecules that are close together causes….
Van der Waals interactions
Van der Waals interactions alone are ____ but a bunch of them together can be extremely _____.
weak; strong
A molecule’s ____ is very important to its function
shape
A molecule’s shape is determined by what?
the positions of its atoms’ valence orbitals
_______ _____ are the making an breaking of chemical bonds.
chemical reactions
The ____ molecules of a chemical reaction are called reactants
starting
The final molecules of a chemical reaction are called _______
products
What does it mean that some chemical reactions go to completion?
all reactants are converted into products
All chemical reactions are _____
reversible
What does it mean for a chemical reaction to be reversible?
Products of the forward(original) reaction become reactants for the reverse reaction
Chemical equilibrium is reached when what happens?
the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal
_____ appears to be unique to our earth?
water
Water covers _____ of the Earth’s surface.
three-fourths
Water constitutes ______% of the living world.
60-70
Water is regenerated and redistributed through ______.
evaporation
Water exists in _ ____ in the natural world.
3 states
Water us ______ to life because dehydration kills very quickly.
essential
What is the structure of water?
one O covertly bonded with 2 H’s
What is the bond angle of water?
105 degrees
Oxygen is _______ and attracts the electrons of hydrogen.
electronegative
Unequal distribution gives water ______
polarity
The oxygens have a slight _______ charge
negative
The hydrogens have a slight _____ charge
positive
The polar nature of water allows for water to be seen in nature as ____ _______.
3 states
Liquid water has fragile, disorganized _______ bonds.
hydrogen
Liquid water’s bonds only last a few ______ of a second
trillionth
The bonds of liquid water are constantly _______
reforming
Solid water has _____ hydrogen bonds.
organized
Crystal is more ____ than disorganized liquids which is why ice floats.
spacious
The structure of ____ water molecules is single molecules liberated from other by the addition of energy.
gaseous
Collectively, hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together a process called ______
cohesion
Cohesion helps the transport of water against ______ in plants.
gravity
______ is an attraction between different substances, for example, between water and plant cell walls
adhesion
____ ______ is a measure of how hard it is to break the surface of a liquid; related to cohesion
surface tension
Water absorbs heat from _____ air and releases stored air to _____ air.
warmer; cooler
Water can absorb or release a large amount of heat with only a slight change in its own _____
temperature
The behavior of water is the basis for the ______ temperature scale
metric
A _____ is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree celsius
calorie
Calories on food packages are actually _____
kilocalories
The ____ ______ of a substance is the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of that substance to change its temperature 1 degree celsius
specific heat
The specific heat of water is what?
1 cal/g/degree C
Water ____ changing its temperature because of its high specific heat.
resists
Water’s high specific heat can be traced to _____ _____.
hydrogen bonding
Heat is _____ when hydrogen bonds breaks
absorbed
heat is _____ when hydrogen bonds form
released
The high specific heat of water_______ temp. fluctuations to within limits that permit life.
minimizes
______ is the transformation of a substance from a liquid to a gas.
evaporation
The heat a liquid most absorb for 1 gram to be converted to gas
heat of vaporization
As a liquid evaporates its remaining surface cools, this is a process called ______ _______
evaporative cooling
Evaporative cooling of water helps stabilize _____ in organisms and bodies of water
temperatures
Ice floats in liquid water because _____ bonds in ice are more ordered making ice less dense than water
hydrogen
water reaches its greatest density at what temperature?
4 degrees celsius
If all ice sank, all bodies of water would eventually freeze solid making…
life on Earth impossible to sustain
solvent + solute =
solution
Water is a versatile solvent due to its _____
polarity
Water’s polarity allows it for easily form ______ bonds
hydrogen
When an ionic compound is dissolved in water, each ion is surrounded by a sphere of water molecules called a ______ ____
hydration shell
Water can dissolve compounds made of ______ polar molecules
nonionic
Large molecules such as proteins can dissolve in water if they have ….
ionic and polar regions
hydrophilic substances =
substances with an affinity for water
hydrophobic substances =
substances that do not like water
oil molecules are hydrophobic because they have relatively _____ bonds
non polar
a stable suspension fine particles in a liquid
a colloid
Most biochemical reactions occur in ____
water
Chemical reactions depend on _____ of molecules and therefore on the ____ of ____ in an aqueous solution
collisions;concentration;solutes
_____ mass is the sum of all masses of all atoms in a molecule
Molecular
Numbers of molecules are usually measured in _____
moles
1 mole =
6.02 times 10^23 molecules
6.02 times 10^23 is what?
avogadro’s number
The number of moles of solute per liter of solution
Molarity
Water is in a state of ______ _____
dynamic equilibrium
What is dynamic equilibrium?
a state in which water molecules dissociate at the same rate at which they are being reformed
The dissociation of water molecules has a ____ effect on organisms.
great
The hydrogen atom in a hydrogen bond between 2 water molecules can….
shift from on hydrogen to the other
A hydrogen molecule with a extra proton is called what?
Hydronium ion
A hydronium ion is often represented as
H+
When a hydronium ion is created the molecule that lost a proton is called what?
hydroxide ion
A hydroxide ion is often represented as
OH -
Changes in concentration of H+ and OH- can ______ affect the chemistry of a cell
drastically
Acidic solutions have a pH of ____ than 7
less
Basic solutions have a pH of ____ than 7
greater than
Bases have a higher concentration of ___ ions.
H+
Acids have a higher concentration of ____ ions.
OH-
The internal pH of most living cells must remain close to what pH?
7
_____ are substances that minimize changes in concentrations of H+ and OH- in a solution
Buffers
Carbon is often referred to as what?
the backbone of life
how does carbon enter the biosphere?
through plants
carbon is unique in its ability to do what?
form molecules that are large,complex, and diverse
carbon forms bonds with H,N,O,P, and S to make
biological macromolecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins
Carbon can bond to __ the atoms
4
Carbon has how many electrons?
6
How many electrons are in carbon’s first shell?
2
How many valence electrons does carbon have?
4
How does carbon complete its outer shell?
by sharing its 4 valence electrons with other atoms
_________ is what makes carbon so versatile.
Tetravalent
In a single bond with carbon all the orbitals have a tetrahedral geometry with bond angles of….
109.5 degrees
In a double bond with carbon all the orbitals have trigonal planar geometry with bond angles of….
120 degrees
Carbon structure can vary by
length, branching, double bonds, and rings
The electron configuration of carbon gives it ______ ________ with many different elements.
covalent compatibility
What are carbons most frequent bonding partners?
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
What are the “building codes” that govern the architecture of living molecules?
carbon’s valence and its frequent bonding partners
What are hydrocarbons?
organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogens
What are isomers?
atoms of the same elements but are arranged differently
_____ isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms
Structural
_____ isomers have the same covalent arrangements but different in spatial arrangement
Geometric
_______ isomers are mirror images of one another
Enantiomers
______ _____ are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions
Functional groups
What are the names of the 7 functional groups?
hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydrol, phosphate, and methyl
What are biological macromolecules?
polymers built from monomers
All living things are made up of one of these 4 classes of large biological molecules
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
Within cells, small organic molecules are joined together to form ______ _____
larger molecules
Macromolecules are large molecules composed of thousands of ________ connected atoms
covalently
Molecular structures and functions are related in what way?
they are inseparable; structure determines function and function causes it to be a certain structure
A long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks
polymer
what are the building blocks that form polymers called?
monomers
A small set of monomers can form an immense variety of _____
polymers
____ of the 4 classes of life’s organic molecules are polymers.
three
The 3 classes of life’s organic polymers are
polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and proteins
Polysaccharides are built from _______
monosaccharides
Nucleic acids are built from _____
nucleotides
Proteins are multi from ______
amino acids
Nucleic acids are
DNA and RNA
Nucleotides are _____, _____/______, _____, and _____
adenine, thymine/uracil, cytosine, and guanine
How are polymers formed?
dehydration synthesis
How does dehydration synthesis occur?
When 2 monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule
What are enzymes?
macromolecules that speed up the dehydration process
How are polymers disassembled back into monomers?
through hydrolysis
What is hydrolysis?
2 monomers are broken apart from the addition of a water molecule
What are carbohydrates?
sugars and the polymers of sugars
What are the simplest carbohydrates called?
monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are sometimes called?
simple sugars
What is the typical molecular formula of monosaccharides?
usually multiples of CH2O
What is the most common monosaccharide?
glucose (C6H12O6)
How are monosaccharides classified?
location of carboxyl group, # of carbons, and spatial arrangement of carbons
What purpose do monosaccharides hold?
serve as the major fuel source for cells and the raw material for building molecules
How can monosaccharides be arranged spatially?
as linear chains or rings
How is a disaccharide formed?
when a dehydration reaction joins 2 monosaccharides forming a covalent bond
The covalent bond that is formed by disaccharides is called a what?
glycosidic linkages
The polymers of sugars are called _____
polysaccharides
How is the structure and function of a polysaccharide determined?
by its sugar monomers and the positions of its glycosidic linkages
What are the roles of polysaccharides?
energy storage and structure
What 2 things are polysaccharides that store energy?
starch and glycogen
Starch is the storage polysaccharide of _____
plants
Starch consists entirely of ______ ______.
glucose monomers
Plants store surplus starch as _____ within chloroplasts and other plastids.
granules
Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide in ______
animals
Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen mainly in their ____ and _____ cells.
liver; muscle
What 2 polysaccharides play a structural role?
cellulose and Chitin
Cellulose is a major component of the tough wall of _____ cells.
plant
Cellulose is a polymer of glucose but the ______ ______ differ.
glycosidic linkages
The differences of cellulose’s glycosidic linkages is based on 2 ring forms for glucose which are
alpha and beta
Polymers with alpha glucose are _____
helical
Polymers with beta glucose are _____
straight
In _____ structures of cellulose H atoms on one strand can bond with OH groups on other strands.
straight/beta
_____ cellulose molecules held together by beta glucose are grouped into microfibrils
parallel
Microfibrils serve what purpose for plants?
form strong building material
Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing alpha linkages can’t hydrolyze ____ linkages in cellulose.
beta
Cellulose in human food passes through the digestive tract as _____ ____
insoluble fiber
Some microbes use _______ to digest cellulose.
enzymes
Many herbivores (cows and termites) have a ________ relationship with microbes that digest cellulose.
symbiotic
Chitin is another structural polysaccharide that is found in the _______ of ________.
exoskeletons;arthropods
Chitin also provides structural support for the cell walls of many ______
fungi
Chitin is used to make dissolving _______
stitches
Lipid ___ poorly with water.
mix
Lipids are not true _____ ___________
polymeric macromolecules
Lipids have some polar parts but are generally ________
hydrocarbons (nonpolar)
Fats are constructed from 2 types of smaller molecules which are what?
glycerol and fatty acids
A fatty acid consists of what 2 parts?
a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton
A glycerol consists of what parts?
3 carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon
How is a triglyceride formed?
3 fatty acids are joined to a glycerol by an ester linkage
Fatty acids can vary how?
by length and #/location of double bonds
Saturated fatty acids have the _____ number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds.
maximum
Saturated fatty acids are solid at ______ ________.
room temperature
Fatty acids are what kind of fats?
animal fats except for fish
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more _____ _____.
double bonds
Unsaturated fats are _____ at room temperature.
liquid
Unsaturated fatty acids are what kind of fats?
plant and fish fats
A diet full of saturated fats may contribute to _________ disease through plaque build up.
cardiovascular
______ is the process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen
Hydrogenation
____ fats may contribute more than saturated fats to cardiovascular disease
Trans
Trans are fats are created by hydrogenating vegetable oils to create….
unsaturated fats with trans double bonds
What is the function of fats?
energy storage
A gram of fat stores twice as much energy as a gram of _________
carbohydrate
Plants don’t move which allows them to store ______
carbohydrates
Animals move so they need a more efficient energy storage solution which is ______
fats
Humans and other mammals store their fat in ______ _____.
adipose cells
Adipose tissue cells also serves what purpose?
cushions vital organs and insulates the body
A phospholipid is made up of what?
2 fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to a glycerol
The two fatty acids of a phospholipid make up the _________ _____.
hydrophobic tail
The phosphate group and its attachments of a phospholipid make up the ___________ _____.
Hydrophilic head
When phospholipids are added to ____ they self-assemble into a _____
water;bilayer
What is the structure of a phospholipid bilayer?
the hydrophobic tails pointing inward and the hydrophilic heads forming a wall on the outside
The structure of phospholipids in water is found in ____ ________.
cell membranes
Phospholipids are the the major component of all ____ __________.
cell membranes
_____ are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused ring
steroids
Cholesterol is a component in ____ cell membranes
animal
Cholesterol is synthesized in the ______
liver
Cholesterol is ____ in animals but high levels in the blood may contribute to cardiovascular disease
essential
cholesterol is the precursor from which other _______ are formed
steroids
cholesterol is an important biological molecule that ______ ____ ________.
signals gene expression
Proteins account for more than __ of the dry mass of most cells.
50%
What are the functions of protein?
structural support, storage, transport, cellular communications, movement, and defense against foreign substances
Polypeptides are ______ built from the same set of 20 amino acids
polymers
A protein consists of one or more __________
polypeptides
organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups
amino acids
Amino acids differ in their properties due to differing side chains called _ ______.
R groups
Enzymes are a type of protein that act as a _____ to speed up chemical reactions
catalyst
All amino acids have a _____ chemical structure with _____ R groups.
common; differing
R-groups give what?
specific chemical properties
Non-polar R groups have what kind of distribution of electrons?
equal
Polar R groups have what kind of distribution of electrons?
unequal
Charged R groups have what chemical properties?
It tells you whether the structure is basic or acidic
Amino acids are linked by ______ _____.
peptide bonds
A _______ is a polymer of amino acids
polypeptide
Polypeptides range in length from a few to more than _________ monomers.
a thousand
Each polypeptide has a unique _____ sequence of amino acids.
linear
A functional protein consists of one or more _______ twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape.
polypeptides
The ______ of amino acids determines a proteins 3D structure.
sequence
The ____ structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids.
primary
The ____ structure of a protein consists of coils and folds in the polypeptide chain
secondary
The ____ structure is determined by interactions among various R groups
tertiary
The ____ structure results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains
quaternary
Primary structure is the sequence in a protein like…
the order of letters in a long word
primary structure is determined by what?
inherited genetic information
The coils and folds of secondary structure result from
hydrogen bonds between repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone
Typical secondary structures are….
a coil called a helix and a folded structure called a b pleated sheet
Tertiary structure is determined by interactions between K groups rather than interactions between….
backbone constituents
These interactions between R groups include:
hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and van der Waals interactions
Quaternary structure results when…
2 or more polypeptide chains form one macromolecule
_____ is a fibrous protein consisting of 3 polypeptides coiled like a rope
Collagen
____ is a globular protein consisting of 4 polypeptides: 2 alpha and 2 beta
hemoglobin
A slight change in primary structure can affect a protein’s ___ and _____ __ _____.
function; ability to function
______ disease results from a single amino acid substitution in the protein hemoglobin
sickle-cell
Protein structure can also be affected by _____ and _____ conditions
physical; chemical
Changes in pH, salt concentration, temp., or environmental factors can cause….
proteins to unravel
The loss of a protein’s native structure is called?
denaturation
A denatured protein is biologically ____.
inactive
Most proteins go through several states on their way to …
a stable structure
protein molecules that assist the proper folding of other proteins
Chaperonins
How do scientists determine a protein’s structure?
X-ray Crystallography
Whats another method to determine protein structure that does not require protein crystallization?
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
What uses computer programs to predict protein structure from amino acid sequences?
Bioinformatics
Nucleic Acids store and transmit _______ __________.
hereditary information
The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of inheritance called a ____.
gene
Genes are made up of ____ which is a nucleic acid
DNA
What are the 2 types of nucleic acids?
DNA and RNA
DNA provides directions for its own _______.
replication
DNA directs synthesis of messenger RNA and through mRNA it control _______ synthesis
protein
Protein synthesis occurs in ______.
ribosomes
Nucleic acids are polymers called ______.
polynucleotides
Each polynucleotide is made up of monomers called _______.
nucleotides
Each nucleotide consists of?
a nitrogen base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group
The portion of a nucleotide without the phosphate group is called a ________.
nucleoside
A nucleoside is made up of what?
a nitrogen base and a sugar
What are the 2 families of nitrogen bases called?
pyrimidines and purines
pyrimidines are made up of?
cytosine, thymine, and uracil
pyrimidines have what structure?
a single 6 membered ring
purines are made up of?
adenine and guanine
purines have what structure?
a 6 membered ring fused to a five membered ring
The sugar between DNA’s nucleotides is called what?
deoxyribose
The sugar between RNA’s nucleotides is called what?
ribose
nucleoside + phosphate group =
nucleotide
nucleotide polymers are linked together to build a _______.
polynucleotides
Adjacent nucleotides are joined ______ bonds that form between the OH- group on the 3 carbon of one nucleotides and the phosphate on the 5 carbon on the next
covalent
The sequence of bases along a DNA or mRNA polymer is _____ for each gene
unique
A DNA molecule has 2 polynucleotides spiraling around an imaginary axis forming a
double helix
Alls organisms are made of _____
cells
The cell is the _____ collection of matter that can live
simplest
Cell structure is _____ to cellular function
correlated
Biochemistry and _______ help correlate cell function with structure.
cytology
What are the 2 types of cells?
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Only organisms of the domain ______ and ______ consist of prokaryotic cells
bacteria and archea
_____, _____, _____, and _____ all consist of eukaryotic cells
protists, fungi, animals, and plants
The _____ membrane of a cell is a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell
plasma
What is the structure of the plasma membrane?
it is made up of a double layer of phospholipids
_____ is a semifluid interior substance
cytosol
What is the function of chromosomes?
carry genes
What is the function of ribosomes?
make proteins
A prokaryotic cell has no _____
nucleus
A prokaryotic cell has DNA in an unbound region called the _____
nucleoid
A prokaryotic cell has no membrane bound ________
organelles
A prokaryotic cell has ______ bound by the plasma membrane
cytoplasm
Eukaryotic cells have DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous ______ _______
nuclear envelope
Eukaryotic cells have _________ organelles
membrane bound
Eukaryotic cells have ______ in the region between the plasma membrane and nucleus
cytoplasm
Eukaryotic cells are generally much _____ than prokaryotic cells
larger
The logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism sets limits on the _____ of cells
size
The ____ ____ to volume ratio of a cell is critical
surface area
As the surface are of a cell increases by a factor of n^2, the volume increases by a factor of __
n^3
Small cells have a ____ surface area relative to volume
greater
What organelles make up the endomembrane system?
nucleus, ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, plasma membrane
What does the nucleus do?
stores DNA (info central)
What does the ER do?
It is the factory of the cell
What does the golgi apparatus do?
it ships and receives
What do lysosomes do?
digest and disassemble
What do vacuoles do?
they are the maintenance compartments
How are the organelles of the endomembrane system related?
They are either directly connected to one another or connected by transport vesicles
What organelles are in the energy conversion group?
mitochondria, chloroplasts, and peroxisomes
The nucleus contains most of a cell’s ____
genes
The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus separating it from the _____
cytoplasm
The nuclear membrane is a _____ membrane
double
What is a double membrane?
a membrane with 2 lipid bilayers
_____ regulate the entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus
pores
The shape of the nucleus is maintained by the _____ _____
nuclear lamina
The nuclear lamina is composed of what?
protein filaments
In the nucleus DNA and proteins form genetic material called ______
chromatin
Chromatin _____ to form discrete chromosomes
condenses
The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and is the site of ____ synthesis
rRNA
What are ribosomes responsible for?
the conversion of genetic material to protein
What are ribosomes made out of?
ribosomal RNA and protein
Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis is what 2 places?
in cytosol and outside the ER/nuclear envelope
Protein synthesis that occurs in the cytosol is made by ______ ribosomes?
free
Protein synthesis that occurs outside the ER/nuclear envelope is made by______ ribosomes?
bound
The ER accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many ______ cells
eukaryotic
The ER membrane is _____ w/ the nuclear envelope
continuous
What are the 2 distinct regions of ER?
smooth ER and rough ER
Smooth ER ___ ribosomes
lacks
What are the functions of smooth ER?
synthesize lipids, metabolize carbohydrates, detoxify poison, and store calcium
Rough ER ____ ribosomes on the surface
has
The rough ER has ____ ribosomes that secrete glycoproteins.
bound
What are glycoproteins?
proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates
What are the functions of the rough ER?
distribute transport vesicles and are the membrane factory for the cell
The golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called _____
cisternae
What are the functions of the golgi apparatus?
modifies products of ER, manufactures certain macromolecules, and sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
A lysosome is a membranous sac of ____ enzymes that can digest macromolecules
hydrolytic
Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze _____, _____, ____, and _______
proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids
Some types of cells can engulf another cell by _____________
phagocytosis
A lysosome ___ w/ a food molecules and digests the molecules
fuses
Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organelles and macromolecules which is a process called _______
autophagy
A plant cell of fungal cell may have one or several _____-
vacuoles
____ vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
food
_______ vacuoles are found in many freshwater protists and pump excess water out of cells
contractile
______ vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells hold organic compounds and water
central
Mitochondria are the sites of _______ _________
cellular respiration
What is cellular respiration?
a metabolic process that generates ATP
Chloroplasts is plants and algae are the sites of _________
photosynthesis
Peroxisomes are _____ organelles
oxidative
Mitocondria and chloroplasts….
are not part of the endomembrane system, have a double membrane, have proteins made by free ribosomes, and contain their own DNA
Mitochondria are in nearly all ______ cells
eukaryotic
Mitochondria have smooth outer membranes and an inner membrane folded into ____
cristae
What 2 compartments does the inner membrane create?
the inter membrane space and the mitochondrial matrix
Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in the _______
mitochondrial matrix
_____ present a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP
Cristae
Chloroplasts are members of a family of organelles called _____
plastids
Chloroplasts contain the green pigment ______
chlorophyll
Chloroplast structure includes
thylakoids that are stacked to form a geranium and storm
_________ are specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single membrane
peroxisomes
Peroxisomes use ____ to break down different types of molecules
oxygen
Peroxisomes produce _____ _____
hydrogen peroxide
Peroxisomes convert H2O2 into _____
water
