Exam 1 Flashcards
Dictionaries and encyclopedias generally define religion using a _______ approach.
substantive
Substantive definitions are focused on?
what religion is, naming features (such as ethical systems, sacred texts, and divine beings) that represent aspects one would expect to find in a system deemed “religious.”
Functionally oriented analysts may define religion in terms of?
what it does, drawing from concepts associated with the explanation of natural phenomena, ontological concerns such as the meaning of life, or therapeutic values and the ability of religion to provide succor and comfort in times of difficulty.
Pitfalls of substantive definitions:
- May seem to narrow in scope, leaving some of the world’s traditions on the periphery or out of the discussion entirely.
- A substantive definition that privileges sacred texts, for example, may not include the world’s indigenous religions for which the sacred stories are transmitted via oral tradition.
Pitfalls of functional approach definitions:
- Opposite of substantive, may be so broad as to include cultural forms that fall beyond what is accurately called religious.
- Conversely of substantive, functional emphases on the explanation of natural phenomena could include scientific inquiry in the category “religious.”
the true analysis of religions as cultural products arose when?
the nineteenth century
Early anthropologists sought to?
characterize the indigenous cultures they encountered in their studies
Sociologists…
compared religious forms in terms of cultural institutions
Psychologists compared religious behavior to?
Other types of mental phenomena such as compulsive disorders.
The humanities also included religion in…
studies of human production, with historians mapping the role religion plays in human thought and action and performing literary analysis of fictional forms containing religious themes, the religious scriptures themselves, and artistic productions that employ religious themes.
One of the foundational aspects of the study of religion:
that religion is a human construct: people who are collectively oriented develop the actions and beliefs, writing and art, ritual and ceremonies associated with religion.
Émile Durkheim
who theorized that the origins of religion are found in collective identity establishment and celebration. He advanced the concept of totemism and the notion that tribal people (whom Durkheim somewhat ethnocentrically thought of as “primitive” societies and therefore indicative of early human forms) established natural elements—animals and plants—as representative of the collective, then ritually engaged the representative, the totem, in acts that produced what he called “collective effervescence.” This emotional celebration of the group identity established a “moral community” within which individuals could feel connected and safe.
Semiotics
the study of symbols
Characteristics of Religion:
presence of beliefs, concerns with community, myths, rituals, ethics, emotional experiences, material expressions, and the ideas of the sacred
We looked at 3 patterns of the characteristics of religions:
Worldview, beliefs and practices, and gender views
seasonal approaches:
incorporate the dynamic nature of the natural world: seasonal changes, the movements of planets and stars, or the human movement through birth, life, and death. Religious communities incorporate time into the observances of the sacred within their particular worldview. The Roman Catholic liturgical calendar, for example, follows a seasonal format that moves from Christmas to Easter, then back to Christmas.
Existential concerns are at the core of most religious systems…
and answers to questions such as “Why am I here?” and “What is the meaning of life?” are all at least approachable, if not answerable, by the religious worldview. The existential issues that a religious community must work through are often expressed in stories and narratives associated with the relationship to the sacred universe. Whether transmitted orally or in the form of sacred scriptures, myths and stories can frame the human search for meaning to provide a sort of mirror, reflecting back the nature of the religious community.
Beliefs or doctrine are:
the collections of sacred truths that emerge from the basic elements of the worldview.
Religious tradition can be placed in 3 categories:
sacramental, prophetic, and mystical orientations
Sacramental:
a term beholden to Christian analysis and thus somewhat an ill fit, refers to the need for orthopraxy, or correct practice, for ritual effectiveness.
Prophetic orientation:
describes the desire for contact with the sacred that is at the center of many religious rituals and ceremonies. Included in this aspect of religious patterns is the frequent employment of individuals whose specific role is that of intermediary.
Mystical orientation:
is the ineffable realm beyond the immediate natural one—the realm of gods and spirits—that the believer hopes to influence with rituals and mediators.
Gender view
can be thought of in terms of symbolic representations of gender as well as the gendered social roles that emerge from a religious worldview
matrilineal
the family lines are traced through the mother
matrilocal
a husband becomes a member of his wife’s clan
multidisciplinary approach:
Some of the most recent research has been in the area of cognitive science and evolutionary psychology.
What are the two main approaches to defining religion, and how are they different?
The two main approaches to defining religions are the functional and the substantive. Functional types suggest what religion does for people and how they use it. Substantive types emphasize what religion is, offering some of the key elements that make up a religion.
In what ways can the patterns discussed in your textbook and in this lesson inform the study of human culture generally?
All three patterns reflect other areas of human interaction, such as proper behavior and social mores, issues of power and control, and the formation of cultural institutions such as economics, politics, and law.
What does the word religion mean literally?
connect again
What does the prophetic orientation in religion emphasize?
beliefs and moral codes
What early anthropologist saw religion as rooted in a belief in spirits and the worship of them?
E.B. Tylor
What characterizes a mystical orientation in religion?
the seeking of a union with something greater than oneself
Anthropology typically study religions as what?
an influence on social systems such as family, social roles, property rights, etc.
academic study of religion:
(1) the academic study of religion isn’t about proving one religion right or wrong – it simply isn’t an issue of right or wrong, but what people do when they practice religion; (2) the academic study of religion doesn’t look to prove or disprove things about religions; (3) studying religion isn’t about trying to get people to doubt their own beliefs.
Religions manifest 8 possible elements: belief system, community, central myths, ritual, ethics, characteristic emotional experiences, material expression, and _______.
sacredness
The belief that all is divine is called _______.
pantheism
_______ agrees that the existence of God cannot be proven.
Agnosticism
Anthropologist _______ believed that religion was rooted in spirit worship.
E.B. Tylor
_________ theorized that belief in a God or gods arises from the long-lasting impressions made on adults by their childhood experiences.
Sigmund Freud
Rudolf Otto argued that religions emerge when people experience that aspect of reality which is essentially mysterious; while ______ believed that religion was a noble human response to the complexity and depth of reality.
Carl Gustav Jung
Religions express truth ____. For example, water can represent spiritual cleansing; the sun, health; a mountain, strength; and a circle, eternity.
Symbolically
In early religions, the most significant female
deity was particularly associated with _______
and motherhood and has been known by many names, such as Asherah,
Aphrodite, and Freia.
fertility
When we look at the world’s dominant religions, we see 3 basic orientations in their conceptions and location of the sacred: sacramental, prophetic, and ______.
mystical
As an academic discipline, the field of religious studies is now more than _____ years old.
200
agnosticism
“Not know”; a position asserting that the existence of God cannot be proven.
animism
From the Latin anima, meaning “spirit,” “soul,” “life force”; a worldview common among organ religions that sees all elements of nature as being filled with spirit or spirits.
atheism
“Not God”; a position asserting that there is no God or gods
deconstruction
A technique, pioneered by Jacques Derrida, that sets aside ordinary categories of analysis and makes use, instead, of unexpected perspectives on cultural elements; it can be used for finding underlying values in a text, film, artwork, cultural practice, or religious phenomenon.
dualism
The belief that reality is made of two different principles (spirit and matter); the belief in two gods (good and evil) in conflict
immanent
existing and operating within nature
nontheism
a position that is unconcerned with the supernatural, not asserting or denying the existence of any deity.
pantheism
The belief that everything in the universe is divine.
polytheism
belief in many gods
post-structuralism
An analytical approach that does not seek to find universal structures that might underlie language, religion , art, or other such significant areas, but focuses instead on observing carefully the individual elements in cultural phenomena
structuralism
An analytical approach that looks for universal structures that underlie language, mental processes, mythology, kinship, and religions; this approach sees human activity as largely determined by such underlying structures.
transcendent
“Climbing beyond”; beyond time and space
The 2 major biases of indigenous religions?
1) primitive 2) all the same
Indigeneity
Latin indigena meaning “sprung from the land” and “native”, which alludes to a particular birth place.
Tribe
From the Latin tribus, was used to delineate 3 main cultural groups in Rome: Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans.
locale
place where things occur
Wakan
The indigenous Lakota believed waken flows through things like a power
Dreamtime
can refer to a general sense of Australian spiritual culture or specifically to the period of creation in which ancestral beings traveled throughout the country
Which aspect associated in your textbook with indigenous religions is most reflected in the concept of embeddedness?
The aspect most reflected in embeddedness is the idea that indigenous religions are located in holistic cultures, where any object, act, or place can be associated with the sacred.
What aspect of indigenous religious life would be the most likely tool for a connection between sacred places and power?
Likely tools are ceremonial actions that provide opportunities for enacting the worldview and engaging the spiritual world.
What aspect of indigenous religious traditions would most affect contemporary views about ecological concerns and the ability for indigenous communities to have insight into issues regarding the environment?
The most influential aspect is embeddedness in the natural cycles and a close relationship to particular landscapes.
The transmission of indigenous religions is made more difficult because teachings are often conveyed in what ways?
They are conveyed in ways that are relatively impermanent.
What is not a way the teachings of indigenous religions are typically conveyed?
sacred scripture
What does a libation involve?
the pouring of a liquid on the ground as an offering
What is associated with a special ability to know or even enter the spirit world?
the shaman
Although there is no agreement on how to speak of ancient religious ways, they are often inadequately referred to as traditional, aboriginal, indigenous, tribal, ____, primal, native, oral, and basic.
non literate
Indigenous religions exist generally within ____ cultures, in which every object and act may have religious meaning.
holistic
In many Native American religious traditions, there is little distinction between the human and animal worlds. These native religions see everything in the universe as being alive, a concept known as _______.
animism
Sacred time is “the time of _______.” Among the Koyukon people of the Arctic, it is called “distant time,” and it is the holy ancient past in which gods lived and worked. Among Australian Aborigines it is often called Dreamtime, and it is the subject of much of their highly esteemed art.
eternity
______ is the doorway through which the “other world” of gods and ancestors can contact us and we can contact them. It is associated with the center of the universe and can be constructed, often in a symbolic shape such as a circle or square.
Sacred space
Most indigenous religions have cosmic tales of their _____. They frequently speak of a High God and make little distinction between a god and an ancestor.
origins
In native societies, everyday religious activity and practice are significant, because their primary purpose is often to place individuals, families, and groups in “right _____” with gods, ancestors, other human beings, and nature.
relationships
Special rituals make a person’s entry into adulthood. In Native American religions, a common ritual of early maturity is the “vision quest,” or “________.”
dream quest
A _______ is a rule that forbids specific behavior with regard to certain objects, people, animals, days, or phases of life.
taboo
A(n) ______ acts as an intermediary between the visible, ordinary world and the spirit world.
shaman
calumet
A long-stemmed sacred pipe used primarily by many native peoples of North America; it is smoked as a token of peace.
Divination
A foretelling of the future or a look into the past; a discovery of the unknown by magical means
holistic
Organic, integrated; indicating a complete system, greater than the sum of its parts; here, refers to a culture whose various elements (art, music, social behavior) may all have religious meaning.
libation
the act of pouring a liquid on the ground as an offering to a god.
Shaman
A human being who contacts and attempts to manipulate the power of spirits for the tribe or group
Sympathetic magic
An attempt to influence the outcome of an event through an action that has an apparent similarity to the desired result- for example, throwing water into the air to produce rain or burning an enemy’s fingernail clippings to bring sickness to that enemy.
taboo
A strong social prohibition (Tongan: tabu; Hawaiian: kapu)
totem
an animal (or image of an animal) that is considered to be related by blood to a family or clan and is its guardian or symbol
How does puja reflect a devotee’s relationship to the dharma?
Ritual recognition of the role the gods play in everyday life helps maintain focus on one’s obligations to the dharma and therefore builds on the individual’s positive karma.
How does the concept of shakti complement the nature of deities in Hinduism?
As the feminine energy, shakti complements the masculine energy of the Trimurti, appearing as the consorts of the gods.
How would you characterize the Chipko movement discussed in your textbook in relation to Hinduism and modernity?
Rising environmental concerns in the twentieth century allow for a connection between traditional values associated with Hinduism and the protection of natural resources.
Hinduism is the majority religion of what geographic region?
Nepal
What term describes the goal of ultimate liberation from egotism and rebirth?
moksha
What is puja?
a devotional ritual
Krishna is considered an incarnation of what other deity?
Vishnu
Krishna is often portrayed holding what?
a flute
The culture that flourished in the Indus River valley before 2000 BCE is named the ______ culture.
Harappa
The ancient scriptures of India are called the _____. There are four basic text collections: the Rig, the Yajur, the Sama, and the Atharva.
Vedas
Around 500 BCE, Indian civilization experienced such widespread and important changes that the period is called the _______ Age.
Axis
In the Upanishads, the term _______ refers to the experience of the sacred within nature and the external universe, while _____ refers to the experience of the sacred within oneself. Both terms may be used interchangeably.
Brahman; Atman
The _______ is part of a very long epic poem called the Mahabharata; it recalls themes from the Upanishads.
Bhagavad Gita
Hinduism has a(n) _______ system with five main social classes: brahmin (priest), kshatriya (warrior-noble), vaishya (merchant), shudra (peasant), and dalit (untouchable).
caste
The word yoga means “________.”
union
Shankar’s belief that spiritual liberation was achieved when the individual personally came to understand the unity of all things is called _______.
monism
