Exam 1 Flashcards
disease acts as a ______ in human evolution
disease acts as a selective mechanism in human evolution
list the three types of disease
- genetic/inherited (cystic fibrosis)
- degenerative (atherosclerosis)
- infectious (TB)
with a degenerative disease a person is the victim of _____/______
lifestyle/lifespan
infectious diseases are caused by _______
pathogenic agents
the highest mortality rate worldwide is due to ________ but ______ may overlap all categories
the highest mortality rate worldwide is due to respiratory infections but cancer may overlap all categories
infectious agents evolved from ______ of other _______
infectious agents evolved from parasites of other animal hosts (reservoirs)
______ harbor pathogens, pass them to humans
reservoirs
vectors (usually ______) contribute to _______ to humans
vectors (usually insects) contribute to crossover to humans
most pathogens are _______ and ______ but some are ______
most pathogens are bacterial and viral but some are protozoa
______ cause malaria
protozoa
there has been a gradual trend downwards in death due to infectious agents until recently with an ______ due to _______
there has been a gradual trend downwards in death due to infectious agents until recently with an increase due to emerging disease agents
many of these emerging disease agents are ______
RNA viruses
emerging agents develop when the pathogen passes from the _______ due to _____
emerging agents develop when the pathogen passes from the animal reservoir due to mutations
two recent emerging agents
SARS and MERS
________ of agents led to epidemics
ease of transmission of agents led to epidemics
list the 4 main ways epidemics start
- domestication of animals
- urbanization
- climate change
- trade and travel
domesticated animals can be _____
reserviors
the first domesticated animal (the ____), carried ______ which eventually transferred to humans
the first domesticated animal (the dog), carried measles which eventually transferred to humans
with urbanization came an _____ density of people which allowed for easier transmission of ______
with urbanization came an INC density of people which allowed for easier transmission of communicable diseases
_____ come with INC density of people and carry disease
vermin come with INC density of people and carry disease
with urbanization there was also more _______ which is ripe for the production of viruses and bacteria
sewage
agents and or the vermin that carry them like _____ climate
warmer
when ______ in the SW U.S. brings wet weather the _____ population increases and so does the ___virus
when el nino in the SW U.S. brings wet weather the rodent population increases and so does the hantavirus
travel allows for the spread of _______
infectious agents
flights over ____ hours lead to an INC chance of infection
3 hours
the bubonic plague in Europe was spread by _____ due to rodents being carried with goods
trade
the arrival of ______ in mosquito larva in water from imported tires
west nile virus
an epidemic in plants is called a
blight
epidemics are controlled by what 4 things
- surveillance and containment (quarantine and isolation)
- antimicrobials (antibiotics and antivirals)
- vaccination programs
- public health standards
for containment, there are about 100 diseases that are _____ to the CDC (which reports trends to the _____ )
for containment, there are about 100 diseases that are notifiable to the CDC (which reports trends to the health industry)
antimicrobials (antibiotics and antivirals) are ______ in ______
stockpiled in public health centers
there are vaccination programs that give ___ and ___ to infants
DPT and MMR vaccines
the number of vaccines required varies from ____ to _____
state to state
public health standards regulate contamination levels in ______, _____, and ______
food, water, and sewage
______ amounts are limited in drinking water
coliform
the coliform and enterococcus levels allowed in _______ is 1000X higher
recreational water
with sewage there is ______, ______, and _____ treatment
primary, secondary, and tertiary treatment
primary sewage treatment decreases pathogen level by _____
sedimentation
if there is no municipal sewage district the homeowner must have a ___ or ____ (___ treatment_
cesspool or septic tank (primary treatment)
herd immunity is when _____ may be high but to due the _____ of resistance not everyone will die and ____ will be passed on
herd immunity is when mortality may be high but to due the heterogeneity of resistance not everyone will die and resistance will be passed on
if the agent changes ______ does not apply (ex_____)
herd immunity (example id the flu variants every year)
when there is no _____ vaccination for 75% of the population can eradicate the epidemic agents
reservoir
pasteur also created the _______
germ theory of disease
koch associated a ____ with a disease by his _____
koch associated a pathogen with a disease by his postulates
but kochs postulates required ______ and this became a problem with _____
but kochs postulates required animal and this became a problem with viruses
so instead of using postulates today we use _____ of viruses that appear with individuals that have the same symptoms
genetic profiles
helminths (____) have life cycles in which eggs or ova are produced _______ then move outside via ____ to contaminate ____
helminths (worms) have life cycles in which eggs or ova are produced inside the host (intestines) then move outside via feces to contaminate soil
helminths can remain dormant in the soil for ____ or develop into ____ that pass into other hosts via contaminated food
helminths can remain dormant in the soil for several months or develop into larvae that pass into other hosts via contaminated food
____ are distinct for each type of helminth
ova
once infected by the helminth the host suffers: _____, ______, _____, and possible ______
once infected by the helminth the host suffers: emaciation (loss of nutrition), anemia (lack of vitamins), obstruction (pain), and possible allergic reactions
platyhelminths (_______) can be ____ or _____
platyhelminths (flatworms) can be flukes or tapeworms
5 characteristics of platyhelminths
- hermaphroditic
- no digestive tract
- have outer cuticle
- body segmented with proglottids and scolex
- can live anaerobically
4 characteristics of nematodes
- have a digestive tract
- dioecious (separation of sexes)
- non segmented
- larva need oxygen to mature
4 characteristics of pathogenic protozoa
- characterized by motility (except apicomplexa)
- holozoic feeding (eat bacteria, clarifies water)
- encystment
- all eukaryotic
some pathogenic protozoa have pellicles which are an
outer cover of lipoprotein
pathogenic protozoa reproduce by
1.
2.
- sexual fusion
2. asexual fission
most pathogenic protozoa can encyst in a protein shell and become
dormant for months
pathogenic protozoa have _______ which serve as a water pump to control osmotic pressure
contractile vacuoles
amoebic dysentery is caused by _______ in ______ that liberate trophozoites in ______
amoebic dysentery is caused by entamoeba cysts in feces that liberate trophozoites in intestines
amoebic dysentery causes _____ and ______
ulceration and liver damage
there are many carriers of entamoeba cysts in tropical areas that leads to chronic reinfection due to _____
poor water quality
______ in sewage may affect cornea of contact lens wearers (_______)
acanthamoeba in sewage may affect contact lens wearers (keratitis)
acanthamoeba may also be an agent of ______ (support ______)
humidifier fever (support legionella)
acanthamoeba cysts can ______
aerosolize
naegleria are found in _____/____ water
warm/fresh
naegleria can infect the ______ and cause fatal meningitis in 1 week (___)
naegleria can infect the nasal passages and cause fatal meningitis in 1 week (PAM)
PAM may not only be caused by naegleria but also ______
acanthamoeba
giardiasis is _____ due to water contaminated with _____
giardiasis is diarrhea due to water contaminated with giardia
giardia are _____
flagellated
giardia cysts are resistant to
chlorine
giardiasis is passed through _____ like ______ and interferes with ______
giardiasis is passed through wild animals like beavers and interferes with fat absorption
______ protects infants from giardiasis
human milk
humans can excrete the giardia cysts for ____
years
the giardia throphozoite has 2 _____ and 2 _____
2 adhesive disks and 2 nuclei
______ causes vaginitis which is a rampant STD (can be _____)
trichomonas causes vaginitis which is a rampant STD (can be asymptomatic)
trichomoniasis can be transmitted by _____ or _____
contaminated toilet seats or linens
trichomonas have a _____ and _______ and no ____ form so can be easily treated
trichomonas have a flagella and axostyle and no cyst form so can be easily treated
male can act as a reservoir for trichomonas and ___% of the population may carry it
50%
leishmania is transmitted by ____ with a _____ reservoir
sand fly with a rodent reservoir
leishmania multiply in _____ and invades _____ or forms boils on skin
leishmania multiply in macrophages and invades RES or forms boils on skin
____ are protozoa with no means of motility
apicomplexa
cryptosporidium are carried in ____ and cause _____
carried in water and cause diarrhea
______ is a big problem with malnourished children and AIDS patients
cyrptosporidium
cryptosporidium is an apicomplexan transmitted by ____, ____, _____, and _____
cattle, birds, dogs, and cats
cryptosporidium cysts are resistant to
chlorination
gastroenteritis from cryptosporidium may last up to 2 weeks and ____% of the population may carry it
10%
_____ is transmitted from cat feces (dried cysts) or beef (uncooked)
toxoplasma
flies and birds may harbor toxoplasma and ____ are often infected
pigs
the toxoplasma trophozoite invades the _____ and travels to the ____, _____, _____, and the ______
the toxoplasma trophozoite invades the intestines and travels to the lymph, muscles, meninges, and the optic nerve
toxoplasma can act as a _____ (affects the fetus)
teratogen
babesia is transmitted by ____ from rodents
ticks
babesia was once associated with _____ and _____ (reservoir)
cattle and deer mice
babesia causes _____ like symptoms (RBC damage)
malaria like symptoms
microbes first appeared ____ years ago
4 billion
primitive cell forms had ____ membrane enclosing a cytoplasm with ____ and ____ as well as ____
primitive cell forms had lipid-protein membrane enclosing a cytoplasm with marine water and protein as well as RNA
transformation to DNA based life may have occurred when _____ appeared
reverse transcriptase enzyme
original organisms were _____
anaerobic
the appearance of photopigments led to
cyanobacteria
cyanobacteria used ____ to produce oxygen and create more organic nutrients
photosynthesis
the creation of oxygen by cyanobacteria allowed ____ to evolve (along with the creation of the ozone shield)
aerobes
aerobes need ___% oxygen
1%
marine cyanobacteria are still a major source of the worlds ____
oxygen
as oxygen levels increased eukaryotes (____) and _____ forms appeared
as oxygen levels increased eukaryotes (yeast) and multicellular forms appeared
cyanobacteria (prokaryote) diversified into ____
algae (eukaryote)
spirochetes diversified into ______
protozoa (eukaryote)
actinomycetes diversified into ____
fungi
rickettsia, _____, and ______ de-evolved
rickettsia, chlamydia, and mycoplasma de-evolved
____ and ______ are not pathogens but can produce toxins
algae and cyanobacteria
_____ formed from cyanobacteria
microcystins
microcystins are in warm/stagnant water and can _____
toxify liver
______ of algae can paralyze
red tide neurotoxins
in the five kingdom classification the prokaryotes are in the _____
monera
monera consists of what 6 things
- eubacteria
- archae
- rickettsia
- chlamydia
- mycoplasma
- cyanobacteria
in the five kingdoms classification algae and protozoa are _____
protista
in the five kingdoms classification ___ and ____ are fungi
yeast and mold
viruses (______ and _____ particles) and excluded from the kingdoms because they ____
viruses (protein and nucleic acid particles) and excluded from the kingdoms because they are non living
the three domain classification is based solely on
genetic similarities
list the three domains
- bacteria
- archabacteria
- all eukaryotes
(both 1 and 3 are prokaryotes)
viroids are simply loops of ____ that produce infections in plants
DNA
hepatitis D is now considered a human ____
viroid
hep d needs a helper virus (hep b?) to ______
cause damage
viroids dont make their own _____ and may be carried by _____
viroids dont make their own proteins and may be carried by insects
____ are proteins that normally situate in cell but may change shape (PrPSC form) and not fit into the membrane, they accumulate as amyloids (junk) in the cell
prions
if this junk accumulation occurs in neurons they die and you get ______
spongiform disease of the brain
spongiform disease of the brain is known and ____ or ____ in humans
mad cow or CJ in humans
with prions ___ and ____ are first affected
memory and locomotion
abnormal prions develop from mutation (______) or _____ through food from contaminated animals
abnormal prions develop from mutation (inherited CJ) or acquired through food from contaminated animals
to cross the species barrier, acquired prion must ______ the ______ sequence of _____
to cross the species barrier, acquired prion must resemble the amino acid sequence of the host prion
______ are the most abundant prokaryote
eubacteria
eubacteria are classified in terms of ____
shape
list the three shapes of eubacteria
spiral
bacillus
coccus
eubacteria get their shape from the
wall
though there are the three shapes many eubacteria are _____ and change shape with age
pleiomorphic
as organisms divide the _______ determines whether it will be filaments, chains, or aggregates
plane of division
____ are the longest eubacteria
spirochetes
_____ are the smallest eubacteria
cocci
smaller organisms have a high ____/______ ratio which allows for rapid exchange of nutrients and fast growth
surface area/volume ratio
organisms with ______ have higher diffusion rates and can attach to surfaces better
projections
first structure to evolve from prototype cell was _____
cell wall
key component of the cell wall is ______
peptidoglycan (rigidity)
______ have a greater amount of peptidoglycan
gram positives
in the cell wall there are glycan units linked by ____ side chains
peptide side chains
gram negatives have an outer membrane of ____ on the surface and _____ on the underside
LPS on the surface and LP on the underside
in gram negatives the peptidoglycan is the inner layer of the cell wall and only makes up ___-____ % of it
5-10%
the gram negative’s outer membrane has ____ which screen out by molecular weight
porins
gram negatives also have _______ on surface and endotoxic lipid A (a _____)
gram negatives also have O-polysaccharide antigens on surface and endotoxic lipid A (a pyrogen)
the _____ of the gram negative can initiate septic shock
LPS
when lysozyme and penicillins attack the gram negative peptidoglycan the bacillary cells convert to ______ (have a partial cell wall) which can revert back to normal
spheroplasts
spheroplasts will eventually produce _____ (no wall material) which lyse easily
protoplasts
with listeria, the _____ form (no walls_ can remain stable and revert back to normal cell
L form
the removal of ____ from gram negative walls will lead to loss of gram stain
lipids
gram positives have ____% peptidoglycan
95%
gram positives ____ lose primary stain
do not
gram positives can have ____ chains at the surface (can be antigenic)
teichoic acid chains
some gram positives have outermost protein layer, _____< that is found in archaebacteria
s layer
mycobacterium have multilayered walls with _____ and _____ on outermost layer (porins too)
mycobacterium have multilayered walls with lipids and proteins on outermost layer (porins too)
mycobacterium have peptidoglycan in _____ numbers under lipoprotein that makes the organism resistant to staining
low
for mycobacterium the _____ stain is needed
acid-fast
mycobacterium can remain viable in the air for ____
months
gram negatives also have ______ a gel filled space under wall (not in gram positive)
periplasm
the periplasm may contain _____ enzymes that can break down antibiotics (lactamases)
hydrolytic enzymes
the prokaryote _____ is similar to the one in eukaryotes
cytoplasmic membrane
the cytoplasmic membrane in prokaryotes has a double layer of lipids and proteins that traverse it (prokaryote is __-___% protein, eukaryotes ___%)
pro - 60-70%
euk - 50%
bacterial plasma membranes lack _____ (except mycoplasma) and have ____ for stability
lack cholesterol (except mycoplasma) and have hopanoids for stability
glycocalyx is made up of ____ and _____ and may form on outside of wall
polysaccharides and water
glycocalyx in high density is a
capsule
glycocalyx in low density is a
slime layer
when the glycocalyx interconnects it forms a _____ also called a _____
when the glycocalyx interconnects it forms a matrix also called a biolfilm
these glycocalyx formation allows organisms to _____ to surfaces and it prevents rapid ______
these glycocalyx layers allow organisms to attach to surfaces and it prevents rapid dehydration
the glycocalyx can also protect against _____ and _____ attack in pathogens like streptococcus and pseudomonas
antibiotics and neutrophil attack
some bacteria have straw-like projections that are:
short and numerous ______
long and single or double _____
short and numerous, fimbriae
long and single or double, pilli
fimbriae help with attachment and ______
colonization
pilli allow for exchange of
dna
both fimbriae and pilli are made of _____ and are _____
made of protein and are hollow
bacteria may also have _____ which have a similar protein structure
flagella
flagella are anchored to the wall by a ____ at the end of organisms
basal body
the basal body acts as a
generator
there may be ___ or more flagella on a cell, for example e coli has ___
there may be 1 or more flagella on a cell, for example e coli has 10
the hook arrangement of flagella allows movement as _____
propeller
if moving counterclockwise all flagella become _____ to produce a ____ or run movement
if moving counterclockwise all flagella become bundled to produce a straight line or run movement
if rotation of flagella is clockwise the organism
tumbles in one place
bacteria with flagella have a ______ response in which receptors in the wall detect glucose (nutrients) or oxygen and by means of a signal system control movement
chemotaxis
protein antigen on flagella ________
H
spirochetes have _____
endoflagella
the endoflagella of the spirochete lies beneath _____ but outside _____
beneath lipoprotein sheath but outside wall
many bacteria possess ____ apparatus (especially gram negative)
secretion apparatus
the secretion apparatus allows for _____ (uses ATP) of materials such as ____ and _____
the secretion apparatus allows for active pumping (uses ATP) of materials such as toxins and enzymes
in prokaryotes most of the cytoplasm is ____ with ____ the most abundant inorganic
water (70-80%) with protein the most abundant inorganic
in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes are ____ and ____ only
ribosomes and inclusions
___ dna strand is intertwined within the cytoplasm as one chromosome
one
the inclusions are _____ which may contain phosphate, sugars (glycogen), or lipids
storage granules
aquatic bacteria may contain granules of ____ that assist in navigation
iron (magnetite)
bacillary organisms contain a ________ of actin like fibers which spiral on underside of the cell membrane
microcytoskeleton
the microcytoskeleton acts to reinforce the membrane and direct enzymes into _____
division plane
bacterial growth and metabolism is dependent upon
enzymes
enzymes are catalysts of reactions that break down (______) or build up (______)
break down (catabolism) or build up (anabolism/synthesis)
enzymes may be present all the time (______) or only when temporary conditions exit (_______)
enzymes may be present all the time (constitutive) or only when temporary conditions exit (inducible)
specific structure of enzyme due to protein part, but _____ (vitamin) or ______ (mineral) helps binding to substrate at _____
specific structure of enzyme due to protein part, but coenzyme (vitamin) or cofactor (mineral) helps binding to substrate at active site
catalase allows for rapid breakdown of ____ but it needs _____
breakdown of peroxide but it needs iron
________ are produced outside the cell and degrade complex organics to simple molecules that pass through the membrane (key to biodegradation by bacteria and fungi, composting)
exoenzymes
______ are found inside the cell as part of pathways
endoenzymes
biodegradation involves exoenzymes that break down: proteins, \_\_\_\_\_\_ carbohydrates, \_\_\_\_\_\_ lipids, \_\_\_\_\_\_ organic materials, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ around cells
proteins, putrefaction
carbohydrates, souring
lipids, rancidity
organic materials, detritus
pathogens are ______, use organic carbon (sugar) and organic nitrogen (amino acids)
heterotrophs
bacteria require less cofactors than _____ (fewer enzymes)
eukaryotes
only ____ vitamins are used by bacterial enzymes
b vitamins
of the major minerals bacteria don’t require
calcium
many bacteria produce amylase, cellulose, proteases, and lipases but do not degrade
agar a polysaccharide
infectious bacteria like clostridium might use exoenzymes to degrade _____ (myonecrosis, cellulitis)
tissue
the uptake of iron is enhances by ______ that trap iron in tissues
siderophores
the uptake of nutrients is enhanced by active transport (use ATP) like the _____ transporter and the ____ system
ABC transporter PTS system (adds phosphate to sugar)
peptidoglycan formation employs ______ for export through membrane
bactoprenol
alternate to glycolysis ______ (simpler, 4 steps versus 8)
entner dourdoroff
another alternate to glycolysis is the _______ which allows organisms to store glucose
pentose-phosphate pathway
microbes that degrade lipids have _____ pathway that uses fatty acids in a TCA-like breakdown
glyoxylate
ETS of bacteria in membrane with ______ as an alternate when O2 level is high
cytochromes
______ have the ability to use alternate electron acceptors such as NO3 or CO2
strict anaerobes
enteric organisms may use organics as electron acceptors in
fermentation
_____ use O2 first, then to no O2
facultative anaerobes (can adjust to changes in growth condition)
in _______ clostridium/e coli in ____ produce products like propionic acid, acetic acid, and butanol as well as gas, vitamin K, fatty acids (if diet starchy), and nitrosamines (carcinogenic)
colonic fermentation in LI
in synthetic reactions amino acids produce: _____, _____, _____
peptidoglycan, fimbriae, flagella
in synthetic reactions sugars used to produce: _______ (____,____) and convert to lipids for membrane
polysaccharides (LPS,glycocalyx) and convert to lipids for membrane
in synthetic reactions nucleic acids are produced from ___ and _______
sugars and amino acids
_____ is the most important carbon source
glucose
medium used to support culture maintencance
nutrient broth
medium used to preserve specimen
transport, stuarts or amies
all media contain a _____ source, a _____ source, and a ____ source
carbon, nitrogen, and mineral source
enriched media has
additives like blood
differential media has
unique sugars added
selective media has
inhibitors such as bile
_____ is the values in which a microbe can survive
cardinal range
_____ is where the growth of a microbe is highest
optimum range
bacteria prefer PH around
neutral
but they can also tolerate a low pH like lactobacillus which will tolerate a pH of ____
4
detergents are usually alkaline (above pH ___)
9
optimum temperature for bacteria is between ___ and ____
25-37
_____ grow best in moderate temperatures
mesophiles
pathogens CAN survive in temperatures ___-____
10-40
____ can grow at 10-15 (food hazard)
listeria
most bacteria require O2 (______) in sugar metabolism
aerobes
_____ like less than 8% oxygen
microaerophiles
some prefer no oxygen, called _____
anaerobes (substitute gases like N2 and H2 for O2)
bacteria normally have an Aw (humidity) requirement of
1 (100% RH)
_____ can survive at .8 (80% RH)
staphylococcus
_____ can survive at even lower RH
fungi
bacterial fission depends on _____ time
dna duplication
_____ forms as DNA strands separate into new cells
preseptum
_____ has a generation time of 12 hours
mycobacterium
___ has a generation time of 30 minutes
e coli
incubation time for:
bacteria
viral
fungal
bacteria - 2-3 days
viral - 5-7 days
fungal - 1-2 weeks
septation follows _____
dna replication
pleomorphic is difficult to identify
microscopically
_____ forms lack a cell wall
L form
_____ develops as pathogens become less virulent
morbidity
____ indicated that cholera was transmitted by water supplies
snow
_____ demonstrated that malaria was transmitted by vectors
ross
related symptoms to infectious agent by protocol
koch
associated germs with contamination
pasteur
described an alternate glycolytic pathway
enter
progolottids may be
gravid
vegetative form of protozoa
trophozoite
nematode of fish
anisakis
causes malaria
plasmodium
cyst form appear in muscle
trichinella
anaerobic spore former
clostridium
may infect cornea from contact lens that is contaminated
acanthamoeba
often associated with intestinal infections from contaminated water
giardia
pinworm
enterobius
produces malaria like symptoms
baesia
can infect nerve tissue and fetus
toxoplasma
