Exam 1 Flashcards
Define archaeology.
The study of humanity. I.e., what makes us different/similar, what causes these similarities and differences.
Define culture.
A learned set of beliefs, practices, and symbols.
How can you learn about different cultures?
Through conducting interviews, making observations, cultural participation and through texts and literature.
Define biological anthropology.
The study of human biological origins, evolution and variation.
What do biological anthropologists study?
- Living populations
- DNA
- Fossils
- Non human primates
What is linguistic anthropology?
The relationship btw:
- Language and culture
- Language and identity
- Language and worldview
- Document/preserve endangered languages
What is applied anthropology?
Using anthropological knowledge to solve problems.
What is applied anthropological sciences outside of academic settings?
- Mediate cultural differences
- Develop sustainable land use practices
- Develop government policy
- Provide better healthcare
What is the anthropological concepts psychic unity?
- All humans share the same basic emotional and intellectual capacities - we are a single species.
- People are people no matter where you go and when you go in time.
What is the concept of anthropological concept of plasticity?
Every human can learn and participate in any culture, learn any language, etc.
Define the concept of holistic.
It’s the theoretical perspective that views societies as a whole, rather than as the sum of their parts.
What is needed to understand holism?
Aspects including:
- biology
- religion
- economics
- demographics
- geography
What is armchair anthropology?
Making conclusions w/out firsthand knowledge.
What is an example of armchair anthropology?
- Accounts of travellers and missionaries
- Narratives from colonial perspectives of the “primitive” native peoples
What does fieldwork include?
- firsthand observation
- data collection
- travel
- interviews
- excavations
- collection genetic material
What’s is another word normative?
Perspective.
“They way things are” vs “the way things should be”.
Descriptive vs normative.
“Is” vs “ought” statements.
What is a descriptive statement?
“The way things are”.
What is a normative statement?
“The way things should be”.
Define ethnocentrism.
The tendency to view one’s culture as natural, superior, and correct.
What is/are negative features of ethnocentrism.
It hinders attempts to understand/study other cultures.
Unavoidable to some degree.
What is cultural relativism?
A concept that encourages an understanding of other cultures w/out making value judgements based on the context of ones own culture.
Thought question: does respecting cultural differences make it impossible to support human rights?
Consider these points in your response.
- Anthropologists do not argue that moral claims are impossible and supposer human rights.
- Studying/understanding is not the same as approving or excusing.
- In some cases, cultural practices might conflict with the idea of universal human rights i.e., gender equality, freedom from violence, female genital mutilation
- Anthropology tends to emphasize cultural relativism—the idea that cultural practices and beliefs should be understood within their own context rather than judged according to the standards of another culture
Define anthropology.
The study of humans, their societies, cultures, behaviours, and biological characteristics, both past and present.
What are the 4 subfields of anthropology?
- Cultural anthropology
- Archaeology
- Biological anthropology (bio-anthropology)
- Linguistic anthropology
Briefly explain how ethnocentrism is related cultural relativism.
Step 1: Define both.
Step 2: Think of an example of both concepts separately.
Step 3: Connect these examples.
Step 3: Use the example to generalize the concepts.
What are the parts of modern archaeology?
- Developments in geology, biology, and field techniques.
- The establishment of human antiquity (distant past).
- Development of material culture classification and archaeological theory.
Define precursors to modern archaeology.
The early steps and ideas that eventually helped create the field of archaeology as we know it today.
What are examples of precursors to modern archaeology?
- Restoring tombs and monuments
- Keeping and protecting any written/visusal works
Briefly explain elfshot.
An old term used in British and European folklore to describe mysterious injuries or ailments, often in the form of sudden pain or stiffness, which people believed were caused by supernatural forces, particularly by elves or other magical beings. The term “elfshot” was commonly used in the Middle Ages and later.
People thought that elves or fairies could shoot invisible arrows or “shots” that would cause physical pain, especially in the joints or muscles. These injuries were often described as a sudden, sharp pain, like the feeling of being struck with an arrow. Sometimes, people would attribute this kind of pain to an unseen, magical attack rather than a natural cause.
What are antiquarians?
People, primarily during the 16th to 18th centuries, who were deeply interested in studying and collecting artifacts from the past, especially objects from ancient civilizations or historical periods. They weren’t quite archaeologists as we understand the term today, but they were the early predecessors to modern archaeology.
The term “antiquarian” refers to someone who specializes in the study of antiquities—things from ancient times, like coins, pottery, sculptures, manuscripts, and other relics. Their work often involved searching for, cataloging, and preserving these objects, but it was typically done out of curiosity, wealth, or personal interest, rather than for scientific study or to understand past cultures systematically.
In the context of archaeology, when was the Speculative Period?
Roughly from the Renaissance (14th to 17th centuries) to the early 18th century.
In regards to archaeology, what was the speculative period?
- A time before modern scientific methods were applied to the study of ancient societies.
- An emphasis on collection (looting) over understanding, especially Greek and roman antiquity.
- Was very speculative and unsystematic.
- “Explorer-archaeologist”.
Define excavations.
The process of systematically digging, removing, and studying layers of earth (soil, sediment, etc.) to uncover artifacts, structures, and other physical remains from the past.
Who was the first archaeologist?
Thomas Jefferson, 3rd president of USA.
What are the mound sites in Virginia?
Ancient burial mounds or ceremonial earthworks constructed by Native American cultures.
What is the Three-Age System?
A way of dividing prehistory into three broad time periods based on the types of tools and technology used by humans.
What are the 3 historical ages?
- The Stone Age
- The Bronze Age
- The Iron Age
Who created or proposed the Three Age System?
A Danish curator Christian Jürgensen Thomen.
What is Scientific Archaeology? Around when did it begin?
The development or refinements in dating and analytical techniques.
In the mid-1900’s.
Provide examples of Scientific Archaeology with brief explanations of how they work?
- Radiocarbon dating: method to determine age of an object by measuring the amount of carbon-14 present.
- Dendrochronology (Tree-Ring Dating): determining age of tree based on its rings.
- Remote Sensing and Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR): technologies like satellite imagery, drone surveys, and aerial photography.
- Sediments: naturally occurring particles (sand, clay) that are transported and deposited by natural forces (wind, water). The stratigraphy refers to the layers (or strata) of sediment that accumulate over time.
What is New Archaeology also known as?
Processus Archaeology?
What is Processual Archaeology also known as?
New Archaeology.
What is New Archaeology?
An approach to the study of human history that emerged in the 1960s as a reaction against the more descriptive, artifact-focused archaeology of earlier periods. It focuses on understanding the processes of cultural and social change over time, rather than just describing the objects and structures found at archaeological sites.
Define ethnoarchaeology.
A type of archaeology where scientists study how people today use objects and live their daily lives to understand how ancient people might have done the same things in the past.
What is ethnoarchaeology a combination of?
Cultural anthropology and archaeology.
Who was _______ Binford?
Lewis Bedford was an archaeologist that was instrumental in developing New Archaeology in the 60’s.
What is “living hunter gatherers” an analogue for?
Stone Age peoples.
What is notable about L. Binford and the Nunamiut?
Binford’s work with the Nunamiut helped lay the foundation for New Archaeology (also known as Processual Archaeology). This movement emphasized understanding the processes that shaped past human behavior, rather than just describing artifacts or cataloging things.
Who are the Nunamiut group?
A group of Indigenous people from the Arctic who live in the Northern part of Alaska.
What is experimental archaeology?
A method in archaeology where researchers recreate ancient tools, techniques, and processes to better understand how prehistoric people lived and interacted with their environments.
What is cognitive archaeology?
A subfield of archaeology that focuses on understanding the mental processes, thought patterns, and ways of thinking of past humans. In simpler terms, it tries to figure out what ancient people knew, how they thought, and how their minds shaped their behavior and culture.
What does modern research look like now?
• Huge diversification of theory and methods
• Background research
• Formulation of research question
• Preparation – funding, permissions, training, equipment
• Data collection
• Analysis and interpretation
• Curation
• Dissemination
Ethics in anthropology.
• Do no harm
• Be open and honest
• Obtain informed consent
• Protect study subjects
• Make your results accessible
https://www.americananthro.org/LearnAndTeach/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=22869
How is doing harm avoided in anthropology?
• Avoid harm to individuals, communities, artifacts, environments
• Consider carefully inadvertent impacts of work
• Supersedes goal of seeking new knowledge
• Do some good
What is informed consent in anthropology?
• Be clear about nature of research, its sponsors, its likely outcomes
• Acknowledge potential risks
• Notify of any changes
• Withdrawing consent
Define artifacts.
Anything made, used, or modified by humans that is portable.
Define features.
Non-portable artifacts i.e., building foundations, monuments, burials , and garbage dumps.
What are fossils?
Organic (bone, teeth) tissues replaced by minerals and sedimentary impressions.
What are eco-facts?
Things associated with human behaviour that are not made, modified, or used. I.e., pollen grains and animal remains.
What are archaeological sites?
Locations where material remains of human activity have been preserved. Can be large or small and occupied for a day or thousands of years.
What are habitation sites?
Where people live. I.e., city, village, campsite, etc.
What are resource sites?
They are for resource collection, processing, storage. I.e., quarries and kill sites.
- Quarries: where rocks, minerals, or other natural materials are extracted from the earth.
What are ceremonial sites?
Sites for ritual and display. I.e., monuments
What are burial sites?
Where human remains are. I.e., tombs.
Why are historic sites?
Sites associated with written record.
What is a matrix in archaeology?
The physical mediums that surround objects.
Define provenience.
The exact location where an artifact, feature, or ecofact is found within a site, including its horizontal (within the site) and vertical (depth or stratigraphy) position.
What is association in archaeology?
The relationship between objects.
What are the 2 types of context.
Primary context: artifact is found in its original location (in situ).
Secondary context: artifact is found in disturbed context – erosion/transport.
How are archaeology sites formed?
- Natural causes
- Hand made structures I.e., tombs, houses
- Accumulation
What is constructive c-transforms?
A theoretical concept in archaeology and geography that stems from the study of how past human activities have shaped and transformed the landscape.
What are destructive c-transforms?
- Delete material from the record
- Ancient people destroyed sites by accident and on purpose
- Modern development
- Warfare
- Vandalism
- Looting
What are n-transforms?
Natural processes that alter or transform the archaeological record over time, typically without human intervention. I.e., erosion, animal activity.
Define taphonomy.
The study of what happens to living things after they die and how their remains end up in the ground.
What is preservation influenced by?
Properties of the artifacts, matrix, and climate.
Give examples of artifacts materials.
Organic vs Inorganic
- Likely to preserve: stone, ceramic, some metals (gold), bone,
- Unlikely to preserve: plant remains, iron, skin, muscle, hair
- How might this bias our understanding of sites?
The affect of weather.
- Inhibits or promotes agents of decay
- Mechanical, chemical, biological
- Tropical climates = poor preservation
- Humid/dense vegetation/fauna
- Very cold and/or very dry + stable environments = best preservation
Matrix.
Surrounding stuff – usually sediment or soil
- Acidity
- Moisture
- Oxygen content
- Ice
- Water
- Exposed on the surface
How are sites found?
Through:
- Documentary sources
- Word of mouth
- Ground reconnaissance (pedestrian survey, substrate testing)
- Remote sensing (aerial reconnaissance, LIDAR, Ground penetrating radar)
Write what you know about Reconnaissance Survey Basics.
It’s an initial type of fieldwork used to locate and identify potential archaeological sites. It’s essentially a preliminary exploration of an area to get an overall sense of what might be there. The basis of a reconnaissance survey involves walking through the landscape, looking for signs of human activity or archaeological remains, and recording observations about the site’s location, extent, and potential for further excavation.
Where can you begin to look for sites?
- Where previous work was last done
- Where natural resources are found
- Sightlines
- Modern disturbances
- Erosion sites
What are the hazards you may come across while looking for sites?
- Wildlife
- People
- Climate
What materials should you bring when site searching?
- First aid training equipment
- Wild life training
- Medical evaluation plans
What is Ground Reconnaissance?
In archaeology is an initial type of fieldwork used to locate and identify potential archaeological sites. It’s essentially a preliminary exploration of an area to get an overall sense of what might be there. The basis of a reconnaissance survey involves walking through the landscape, looking for signs of human activity or archaeological remains, and recording observations about the site’s location, extent, and potential for further excavation.
What is sub-surface testing also known as?
Ground truthing.
What is Ground Truthing also known as?
Sub-surface testing.
What is Sub-Surface testing known as?
It’s a technique in archaeology where archaeologists dig small test holes or trenches into the ground to investigate what’s buried below the surface. The goal is to confirm the presence of archaeological materials or features (like artifacts, structures, or bones) that might not be visible on the surface. It’s an important part of fieldwork, especially after a reconnaissance survey, where archaeologists have identified potential sites but need to verify what’s beneath the soil.
What does GPS stand for?
Ground positioning system.
What is Aerial Reconnaissance?
It refers to the use of aerial imagery—such as photographs, satellite images, or drone footage—to survey and identify archaeological sites from above.
What is aerial reconnaissance?
Refers to the use of aerial imagery—such as photographs, satellite images, or drone footage—to survey and identify archaeological sites from above.
What areas can aerial reconnaissance find?
- Earthworks
- Roads
- Ditches
- Buildings
What is Iringa Survey?
Refers to an archaeological survey conducted in the Iringa Region of Tanzania, East Africa. It was a key project in the study of prehistoric human settlements, particularly from the Stone Age. The survey aimed to explore the region’s archaeological record, understand early human life, and discover how past human populations interacted with their environment.
What does LIDAR stand for?
Light detection and ranging.
What does a LIDAR do?
It’s a remote sensing technology that uses laser light to measure distances and create detailed 3D maps of the Earth’s surface, including things that might be hidden under trees, vegetation, or other obstacles.
Sampling basics.
Why sample? Can’t search every square centimeter of ground
• Cost/Resources
• Time/effort
• Sample size – bigger is better but must be balanced against cost
• Reduces sampling bias
What are the different types of sampling?
- Unsystematic
- Systematic
- Simple random
- Stratified random
Random sampling.
Is probabilistic
• Simple Random
• All units equally likely to be selected
• Low density zones
• Stratified random
• Sample units divided proportionally within zones
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Define systematic sampling.
A method of data collection in archaeology (and other fields) where archaeologists follow a regular, structured pattern or system for selecting areas to survey or excavate. It’s a more organized and planned approach compared to unsystematic sampling, aiming to cover a site or region evenly and systematically.
When do you excavate?
- Most material located below ground
- Recover artifacts
- Clarify aite formation
- Study change through time
- Costly and destructive
When not to excavate?
- Excavation must support a research goal
- Most materials are safest in the ground
- Safety of excavators
- Ethical concerns, especially surrounding burials
Different parts of “dirt”.
Sediment: unconsolidated particles of solid materials
- Sand, gravel, clay
- Soil: surface layer of sediment, often with organic materials
- Paleosol: old soil layer that is now buried
What is subsurface detection?
A set of techniques used by archaeologists and other scientists to investigate what is buried beneath the ground without actually digging. These methods allow researchers to identify and map underground features, such as artifacts, structures, buried walls, or even ancient landscapes, by analyzing the physical properties of the soil or using non-invasive technology. I.e., GPR
What are different types of subsurface detection?
- Seismology
- Ground penetrating radar (GPR)
- Magnetometer survey
- Metal detectors
What are different types of subsurface detection?
- Seismology
- Ground penetrating radar (GPR)
- Magnetometer survey
- Metal detectors
What is seismology? How does it work?
It’s a type of subsurface used for detection. It’s the study of seismic waves—the vibrations that travel through the Earth, usually caused by earthquakes, explosions, or other underground activities. These waves can travel through the Earth’s different layers, and by studying them, seismologists can learn about the Earth’s structure, detect earthquakes, and even find subsurface features, making it useful in archaeology, geology, and engineering.
What does GPR stand for? How does it wok?
It stands for Ground Penetrating Radar. It’s a non-invasive geophysical method used to explore what is buried beneath the ground. It sends electromagnetic waves (in the form of radar pulses) into the ground, and when these waves hit different materials or objects underground, they bounce back. By analyzing how the waves return, GPR can create images of subsurface features without the need for digging or excavation.
What is magnetometer survey? How does it work?
A magnetometer survey is a geophysical technique used in archaeology to detect and measure variations in the Earth’s magnetic field caused by subsurface features. It works by detecting magnetic anomalies (small changes in the Earth’s magnetic field) that are caused by buried materials, particularly those made of iron or other magnetic substances, like walls, foundations, fire pits, or metal artifacts.
What’s a magnetometer? How does it work?
A magnetometer survey is a geophysical technique used in archaeology to detect and measure variations in the Earth’s magnetic field caused by subsurface features. It works by detecting magnetic anomalies (small changes in the Earth’s magnetic field) that are caused by buried materials, particularly those made of iron or other magnetic substances, like walls, foundations, fire pits, or metal artifacts.
It’s sensitive to metal.
Bridge River, BC
Winter village with numerous house pits
- Magnetometry, GPR
- Much greater coverage of the site (excavation is slow)
- Identify activity areas such as hearths and storage pits
- Detect and avoid potential burials
What are the 3 Principles of Stratigraphy?
- Law of Superposition
- Principle of Association
- Principle of Intrusion
What is the Law of Superposition?
Layers deposited from bottom to top - oldest on bottom, youngest on top.
What is the Principle of Association?
Items found together in same layer are of about the same age.
What is the Principle of Intrusion?
Intrusion must be more recent than what it intrudes into. I.e., Burial, garbage pit, well, etc.
Wreck of the Mary Rose.
English warship that sank in 1545 CE with most of her crew
- Rare example of a specific moment preserved
- Professional archaeologists and divers
- Skeletons, personal items, equipment, stores, the ship’s dog
Vertical Strategy.
Deep/narrow area
- Changes through time + Sequence of events
- View layers of sediment – depositional history of the site
Horizontal Strategy.
Shallow/broad area
- Contemporary parts of the site
- Distribution of activities on site
- Baulks: sediments left in place to preserve vertical dimension
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Processing and Classification.
Occurs both in and out of the field
- Cleaning, sorting, labeling
- Recording of qualitative and quantitative attributes
- Preservation/conservation techniques
What does GIS stand for?
Geographical information systems.
Briefly explain what you know about GIS.
It’s a powerful tool used to collect, store, analyze, and visualize spatial and geographic data. It allows users to understand patterns, relationships, and trends in data tied to locations on the Earth’s surface. In archaeology, GIS is commonly used to map archaeological sites, analyze spatial relationships between artifacts, and manage large datasets related to excavation sites.
