Exam 1 Flashcards
Children of Biblical Times
Children are seen to have little self-understanding and tend to misbehave, so they should be disciplined and punished to ensure they grow up well
- “discipline and punish”
Children of Ancient Greece
Kids are the future so they must be supported, behavior should be corrected but not fully directed so children genuinely learn
- “supervise and teach”
- Taught by a system like school, not parents
- 12th-9th century BCE
Children of Ancient Rome
Share views w/ Ancient Greece but focuses on male parent (head of house)
- “patriarchy and replenish”
- have more kids to replenish the earth
Medieval Children
Children are born innocent and are taught to misbehave, and they go from infancy to adulthood
- Once kids can walk, talk, and eat without help, infancy has ended
Renaissance-Tudor Children
At this point children are belittled, and seen as very forgetful, bad, untrustworthy people
- Education should occur in a formalized school
- New differences in money/class such as middle class
Children of New World
Start of American society
- Puritan: “instruction and guidance”
- Kids should have discipline and guidance/instruction
- You should behave how you want kids to
- Discipline kids when wrong
- Quaker: “age of reason”
- idea of moral development
- 4-8 is pre age of reason, after that is post age of reason and kids should know how to act
Children of the Republic
- Early 19th Century: parental authority and obedience from children, while also recognizing parents must show kids love/affection
- Kids have different behavior, so parenting styles should be different - Mid 19th Century: parents are responsible for how kids turn out therefore they should get help/info when raising kids
- Late 19th Century: unscientific ideas surrounding kids and morality
- different cultures and people view the way other parents raise their kids, and the way in which kids behave/grow up
Children of Science
Scientific information on how to raise kids
- Typically starts with the children of the scientists before moving to other subjects
Why did it take time for child psychology and research to become a field?
- Studying children isn’t important, instead established adult personalities were emphasized
- Focus was on experimental psych, but society wanted to shift focus to adolescent psych
- Field grew out of relevance
What field did developmental psychology grow out of?
Embryology which is the biological discipline of how we go from a single cell to a complex system in utero
- What happens within
Preformism
The idea that the head of the stem has the parts of a human being and the egg allows it to grow
- Everything is formed early and simply grows
- Homunculus: head of sperm containing human parts
Biogenetic Laws
- Ontogeny
- Phylogeny
- Recapitulation
Ontogeny
The way development happens/what processes happen in growth
- Individual development
- Specific
Phylogeny
The way we evolved from one organism to the other
- Species development
- History
Recapitulation
There are links between individual and species development
- Mirror each other
William Preyer (Observation)
Natural research done by observing the environment\
- Done by multiple individuals to ensure agreement
- Detailed focus
- Unobtrusive to ensure natural behavior
Alfred Binet (Memory and Intelligence)
Measures peoples abilities to see what they cognitively do
- Mainly focus on children/adolescents
- Wanted to see change
G. Stanley Hall (Questionnaire Method)
Asks people about thoughts, behavior, etc. through self-reflection
- recapitulation, not embryos but with lifespan
- credited as father of American Adolescent Psychology
Developmental Theories
Theories of general behavior and how we go through human developlment
Developmental Psychopathology
How do psychological disorders develop?
- Freud
- Developmental model
- Normal/abnormal development
Contributions to Developmental Psychology: Middle Period
1913-1940’s
Specific Areas Looking at Development
- Mental testing
- Physical growth
- Language
- Moral development (emphasis on right/wrong, how to raise good moral kids)
Longitudinal Methods
- Look in at one point and keep checking in thru development to study change
Contributions to Developmental Psychology: Modern Era
1950s-on
Attachment Theory
- Quality of the relation with a caregiver and how it influences development
- Increase in socioemotional development
Information Processing Approach
- New perspective that cognition = computer
- Memory from infant -> child -> adult
Self-Report
Response based on own ideas, thoughts, actions, etc.
- Think less about appropriateness when surveying adults as diff ages require diff phrasing
Others’ Report
Ask others about the behavior of an individual
- Parents, peers, teachers, etc.
Naturalistic Observation
Observing something in its natural environment
Issues in Developmental Data Collection
Consent
- Complex to get consent as children can’t give informed consent, therefore they must get the consent of parents and give their assent
- Child assent = form of consent
School Based
- Approval process such as site approval must be given for data collection
- Administrators must approve
Contrived Observation
Manipulate something to check results/create something to observe
Descriptive Design
Looking at one thing
- ex: general population rates (adopted vs. not adopted)
Correlational Design
How is x related to y, or how does x change as y changes
- Study both variables
- ex: personality variable (anxious and bullied)
Experimental Design
Manipulation of a variable
- Cannot ethically control certain things
Time-Span Design
Goal is to find age/developmental effects
Age/Developmental Effects
Does relationship change based on age group
- Time effect on outcome
Cohort Effects
Similar to age effect but impacted by different factors
Time of Measurement Effects
Based on what is socially/politically/historically happening in world
Cross-Sectional Design
Multiple cohorts with different ages, data is collected all at once
- Pros: collect data quick on a large age range
- Cons: very high potential for cohort effects, just developmental trend rather than info on differences, no individual development
Longitudinal Design
Repeated observation of the same group through an extended period of time
- Pros: allows individual development
- Cons: time of measurement effect, slow and costly, participant could move/be absent
Sequential Design
Mix of cross-sectional and longitudinal, takes several cohorts and tracks through time
- Pros: analyzes age changes and variations, separates impact of cohort experiences
- Cons: complex, expensive, time-consuming
Twin Studies
Monozygotic Twins
- One zygote that split, genetically identical/similar personalities
Dizygotic Twins
- Two diff ovum+sperm, planted + birthed at same time
- Not genetically identical
Genetic v. Environmental Influence
- Nature vs. Nurture
Ethnography (Qualitative Research)
In-depth study of a cultural group
- Not always geographical
- Focuses on a specific culture
- Focus on what they look like, customs, conventions, what they are like, etc.
Case Study (Qualitative Research)
In-depth study of person/small group
- Out of ordinary case
- Not often but helps gain insight surrounding something rare
Hobbes/Christianity
Idea of sin, children enter world evil/immoral
John Locke
Children are born good/helpful/prosocial
- Structure creates evil
- Society strays us
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Not born good or evil, we have no will to power
Five Theories of Development
- Passive v. Active Development
- Continuous v. Discontinuos
- Quantitative v. Qualitative Change
- Universal v. Particularistic
- Nature v. Nurture
Passive v. Active Development
We are passive in development vs. we participate in development
Continuous v. Discontinuos
No change noticed until big difference vs. things change rapidly then plateau until next time period change
Quantitative v. Qualitative Change
Numeric vs. not numeric
Universal v. Particularistic
Applies to everyone vs. a specific environment/factor influenced development
Nature v. Nurture
Things set by biology vs. how people/family set behavior
New Sixth Debate: Parents vs. Peers
Peers have a large influence and parents are starting to have less
- Judith Ruch Harris
Behaviorism
- Passive role in development
- Learn from direction of environment rather than authority/school
- Behavior comes from training
- Influenced by Locke
- Includes Classical/Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Pairing previously unpaired stimuli
Operant Conditioning
Based on rewards/punishment
Social Cognitive Theory
We learn through imitation
- Bandura’s Theory
- Observational learning
- Bobo doll study
Ecological Theory
Relationship between individual and environmental systems
- Urie Bronfenbenner’s Theory
- Includes Microsystem, Mesosystem, Ecosystem, Macrosystem, and Chronosystem
Microsystem (Ecological Theory)
Immediate, day-to-day environment
- ex. family, neighbors, peers
Mesosystem (Ecological Theory)
Relationships between Microsystems
- ex. relationship between parent and a teacher
Exosystem (Ecological Theory)
Not in day-to-day life, less direct influence
- ex. parents boss/job
Macrosystem (Ecological Theory)
Things the characterize society as a whole
- ex. culture, beliefs, customs, laws
Chronosystem (Ecological Theory)
Things embedded in history, experiences person has been through in life
- ex. family problems, historical events, life transitions
Ethological Theory
Based on biology/evolution and environment
- Konrad Lorenz
- Survival of self
- Critical periods/time stamps when things happen
- Imprinting in geese, applied to human attachment
-Based on animal behavior research
Evolutionary Theory
Long processes such as natural selection and adaptations
- Charles Darwin
Piagets’ Cognitive Theory
- Constructivism
- Adaptation
- Four staged Theory
Constructivism
Constructing your own knowledge through experience
Adaptation
Gain new info/insight which changes how you think about something
Four staged Theory
You are limited by the stage you’re in, which changes over the years
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Social interactions with those who are more cognitively advanced/sophisticated
- Importance of culture
Information Processing
Human cognition is similar to a computer
- Brain = hardware
- Strategies = software
Changes in
- Capacity
- Processing speed
- Organization
Historical Time Periods of Adolescence
- Ancient Greece - 1500’s: unknown
- 1500-1890: “Apprenticeship”
- 1700-1890: “Social Blight”
- 1890-1920: “Adolescence Emerges”
Plato & Aristotle
- Infancy (birth-7)
- Childhood (7-14)
- Adulthood (14-21)
Ancient Greece - 1500’s
Lack of writing so unknown
1500s-1890s
“Apprenticeship”
- adult = land/married
1700s-1890s
“Social Blight”
- YMCA/YWCA
1890-1920s
“Adolescence Emerges”
- Industrial Revolution
- Child labor laws
- State laws for schooling
- G. Stanley Hall
Social Construction Perspective
Adolescence was “invented”
- impact of Industrial Revolution
- Impact of “Protectionism” (Boy Scouts)
Youth
terminology for adolescence pre-industrial revolution
Teenager
terminology for adolescence in 1940s-1950s
Early Adolescence
10-14, current terminology
Late Adolescence
15-18, current terminology
Emerging Adulthood
18-25, current terminology
Why does Jeffrey Jensen Arnett believe emerging adulthood is a distinct developmental period?
It is an age of:
- identity exploration
- instability
- self-focus
- feeling in between
- possibilities/optimism
Factors Related to the Elongation of Adolescence
Secular Trends
- nutrition? high fat diet?
Ending Later
- more schooling
- delaying marriage
Policy Implications Related to Defining Adolescence
Social Host Liability Laws
- parental responsibility for how children act (ex. how responsible are parents for kids drinking)
School Shootings
- parents don’t raise killers
- parental responsibility such as keeping guns safely locked up can prevent
Juvenile Justice vs. Criminal Justice System
- decisions vary widely on when to try in CJS whereas JJS sentencing varies for the same crime
- no death penalty under 18
- parole decisions for childhood crimes
Sub-Saharan Africa Adolescence
- Health issues
- Larger families tend to live together
North Africa/Middle East Adolescence
- Islam (large religious influence on development)
- Patriarchal authority (head male makes decisions)
- Men have more freedom whereas women don’t (clothes, education, financial, etc.)
Latin America Adolescence
- Unemployment issues such as parental unemployment influences children
Asia Adolescence
- Confucian: Filial Piety (reverence towards elders, listen + respect)
- Eldest son has most responsibility once dad is no longer strongest man
- Focus on academics, education = popularity
India Adolescence
- Hindu/Islam religious influences
- Adolescents tend to work + do various jobs (child/adolescent labor)
- Caste system: idea of reincarnation, punished/rewarded for past life
- Family more emphasized than friends
Puberty
- Latin: pubescere (grow hairy)
- Sexual reproduction
How is puberty initiated?
Hormones pass through the endocrine system
What are the parts of the Endocrine System?
- Hypothalamus
- Pituitary Gland
- Gonads
- Feedback Loop
- Pineal Gland
Hypothalamus
- Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
- Body Fat Trigger
Pituitary Gland
Gonadotropins
- Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
- Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Gonads
Sex hormones
- Testes and Adrenal Gland
- Androgens: Testosterone
- ACTH
- Ovaries
- Estrogen: Estradiol
Feedback Loop
Set average point for hormone when its unaffected
- Raised during puberty
Pineal Gland
Shift in melatonin, as you get older rise of melatonin occurs later in the night
- Policy Implication: should adolescents go to school later due to later rise in melatonin?
Growth Spurt for Adolescents
- Overall height sees dramatic shift in infancy and adolescence
- Asynchronicity: happens for both at diff times (boys and girls)
- Muscle vs. Body Fat: boys increase in muscle mass, girls increase in fat
Primary Sex Characteristics
Organs and structures related directly to sexual reproduction
- ex. ovaries, testes, penis, vagina
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Related to or derived from sex, but not directly related to reproduction
-Develop when entering puberty/sexual maturity
-ex. facial/body hair, breast development, hips widening, Adam’s apple
Pubertal Changes of Males and Females
Heart
- Larger in males
Lungs
- Greater in males
Athletic Ability
- Biological/social cues
Early Maturation
puberty starts early
- negative for girls in late maturation, more likely to engage in risky behavior
- good for boys, more friends and increased confidence
Late Maturation
puberty starts late
- inverse of early maturation, good for girls, bad for boys
Parental Relations Observation Study
You touch parents less as you grow up
- For a bit during adolescence, girls talk more and boys talk less
Adolescent Response to Menarche vs. Semenarche
Menarche: 1st period
- talked about amongst peers and society
Semenarche: 1st ejaculation
- not usually discussed
Asante Puberty Ritual
Ghana, associated with females
- celebration of womanhood
Orthodox Jew Puberty Ritual
Mikveh: ritualized bath
Amhara Puberty Ritual
Whipping test for men
Samoa Puberty Ritual
Intricate tattoos
Reaction Range
Interactions between genes and environment
Genotype Environmental Correlation
- something set up by genes
- genes influence behavior
Passive: parents genes influence them to set up a specific environment - less influential with age
Evocative: everyone else, you evoke reactions - equally influential with age
Active: alone; you influence and seek certain environments - more influential with age
Parenting Implications Associated with Biological Changes
Hormones and parental conflict
Policy Implications Associated with Biological Changes
- Genetic testing for terminal illnesses
- Prohibited under 18
- Cant be coerced
- Long Process
Piagetian Principles
- Constructivism
- Schemes
- Adaptation
Constructivism (Piaget)
Active approach to development
- interaction with environment = knowledge
Schemes (Piaget)
Physical and mental representations of ideas
- experiences mold beliefs
- good vs. bad teams/ideas
Adaptation (Piaget)
Assimilation: entering something into beliefs, keeps ideas going
Accommodation: if something is bad, understand what won’t work
Equilibrium: new info is balanced with existing knowledge
Piaget’s Stage Theory
Four Stages
- Sensorimotor: use sense
- Pre-operational: represent things in mind
- Concrete Operational: 7 + years
- Formal Operational: 11+ years
Concrete Operational Stage
Problem-Solving
- Trial & error
Thinking
- only “concrete”
Formal Operational Stage
Problem Solving
- hypothetical deductive reasoning
Thinking
- abstract
- idealistic
What are the criticisms of Piaget’s Theory?
- Some abilities develop earlier
- Stages aren’t “stage-like”
- Training
Neo-Piagetian Ideas
- Post-Formal Thought
- Adolescent Egocentrism
Post-Formal Thought
Dialectical Thinking
- multiple solutions for problem
Reflective Judgement
- take argument + find flaws, ex. lawyers
Dualistic vs. Relativistic Thinking
- black & white vs. nuanced grey
Pseudostupidity
- we understand and overcomplicate cognitive processes
Adolescent Egocentrism
We think everyone sees and thinks like us
- Imaginary Audience: think everyone is watching/knows you
- Personal Fable: main character syndrome
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Emphasis on culture and social interactions
- vary on what/how we learn
Zone of Proximal Development
“The sweet spot” of learning
- Diff for everyone
Intersubjectivity (ZPD)
Must know where someone is at, communicate
Scaffolding (ZPD)
How you build up, helpless to independent piece by piece
Private Speech (ZPD)
Internal scaffolding, giving self steps
WISC vs WAIS
Quantitative Intelligence Tests
- Wexler Intelligence Scale for Children (up to 16)
- Wexler Adult Intelligence Scale (between 17-18+)
Intelligence Testing (psychometric)
Quantitative measure of intelligence
- WISC AND WAIS
Cattell & Horn (psychometric)
Two forms of independent intelligence
- Fluid: not taught/learned, innate
- Crystallized: accumulation of knowledge, can be improved
Sternberg Triachic (multiple intelligence)
Three forms of intelligence, can’t be measured
- Analytic: high in psychometric, “book smart”
- Creative: multiple quality, unique ideas
- Practical: contrasts analytical, “street smart”
Gardner Multiple Intelligence (multiple intelligence)
Everyone is intelligent in some way
- ex. spatial, musical, interpersonal
Improvement to Language in Adolescence
Complex Structures: secondary meaning/inflection
- metaphor
- satire
- sarcasm
Second Language Learning: more rapid, lower proficiency
- phonology: if languages have similar phonology fluency is more attainable
Metacognition (social cognitive improvement)
Awareness of cognitive processes
- theory of mind, understand everyone has different awareness
- improves from preadolescence, plateau in early adolescence on
Perspective Taking (social cognitive improvement)
Consider others’ perspectives
- Mutual: knowing how someone perceives world
- increase from preadolescence and then stops at early adolescence thru late adolesence
- Social & Conventional: how group perceives world
- no impact until sudden increase during early adolescence into late adolescence
Attention (info processing improvement)
Selective: focus on something
- ignore other info
Divided: multiple things focus on
- humans are bad at this
Processing (info processing improvement)
Automatic
- increases from preadolescence to early adolescence, plateaus from early to late adolescence, and increases again from late to emerging adolescence
Memory (info processing improvement)
- Working memory: how much info can brain actively hold/manipulate
- Long-term strategies: mental shortcuts/strategies
- Improve memory
- increases from preadolescence to early adolescence and then plateaus from early to late adolescence
Executive Function (info processing improvement)
Different points of cognition interact
- increases from preadolescence to early adolescence, plateaus from early to late adolescence, and increases again from late to emerging adolescence
